Hot air balloon Dubai calm balloon ride

A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and a source of heat, in most cases an open flame caused by burning liquid propane. The heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant, since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere. The envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air inside the envelope is at about the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is generally made from nylon fabric, and the inlet of the balloon (closest to the burner flame) is made from a fire-resistant material such as Nomex. Modern balloons have been made in many shapes, such as rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the traditional shape is used for most non-commercial and many commercial applications.

The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology. The first untethered manned hot air balloon flight in the world was performed in Paris, France, by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes on November 21, 1783,^[1] in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers.^[2] Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships.

A precursor of the hot air balloon was the sky lantern (simplified Chinese: 孔明灯; traditional Chinese: 孔明燈). Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era (220–280 CE), used these airborne lanterns for military signaling.^[3] The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland in the 13th century.^[4] This is the first time ballooning was known in the western world.

In the 18th century the Portuguese Jesuit priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão in colonial Brazil envisioned an aerial apparatus named Passarola, which was the predecessor of the hot air balloon. The Passarola was intended to serve as an air vessel in order to facilitate communication and as a strategical device.^[5] In 1709 John V of Portugal decided to fund Bartolomeu de Gusmão's project following a petition made by the Jesuit priest,^[6] and an unmanned demonstration was performed at Casa da Índia in the presence of John V and the queen, Maria Anna of Austria, with the Italian cardinal Michelangelo Conti, two members of the Portuguese Royal Academy of History, one Portuguese diplomat and one chronicler serving as witnesses. This event would bring some European attention to this event and this project. A later article dated on October 20, 1786, by the London Daily Universal Register would state that the inventor was able to raise himself by the use of his prototype. Also in 1709, the Portuguese Jesuit wrote Manifesto summário para os que ignoram poderse navegar pelo elemento do ar (Short Manifesto for those who are unaware that is possible to sail through the element air); he also left designs for a manned air vessel.

In the 1970s, balloonist Julian Nott hypothesized that the Nazca Lines geoglyphs' creation two millennia ago could have been guided by Nazca leaders in a balloon, possibly the earliest hot air balloon flights in human history.^[7] To support this theory, in 1975 he designed and piloted the Nazca Prehistoric Balloon, claiming to have used only methods and materials available to the Pre-Inca Peruvians 1,000 years ago.^[8][9]

The French brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier developed a hot-air balloon in Annonay, Ardèche, France, and demonstrated it publicly on September 19, 1783, making an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes. After experimenting with unmanned balloons and flights with animals, the first balloon flight with humans aboard, a tethered flight, performed on or around October 15, 1783, by Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier, who made at least one tethered flight from the yard of the Reveillon workshop in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine. Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the second human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m (85 ft), the length of the tether.^[10][11] The first free flight with human passengers was made a few weeks later, on November 21, 1783.^[2] King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but de Rozier, along with Marquis François d'Arlandes, petitioned successfully for the honor.^[12][13][14] The first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus, when the French used the balloon l'Entreprenant for observation.^[15]

Modern hot air balloons, with an onboard heat source, were developed by Ed Yost and Jim Winker, beginning during the 1950s; their work resulted in his a first successful flight on October 22, 1960.^[16] The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom (UK) was the Bristol Belle, built in 1967. Presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation.

On November 26, 2005 Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21,027 m (68,986 ft). He took off from downtown Mumbai, India, and landed 240 km (150 mi) south in Panchale.^[17]

The previous record of 19,811 m (64,997 ft) had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6, 1988, in Plano, Texas.

On January 15, 1991, Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew 7,671.91 km (4,767.10 mi) from Japan to Northern Canada in the “Virgin Pacific Flyer”. With a volume of 74,000 cubic meters (2.6 million cubic feet), the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 394 km/h (245 mph).

The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard (Auguste Piccard's grandson) and Briton Brian Jones, flying in the Breitling Orbiter 3. It was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-d'Oex, Switzerland, on March 1, 1999, and landed at 1:02 a.m. on March 21 in the Egyptian desert 500 km (300 mi) south of Cairo. The two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes.

Steve Fossett, flying solo, exceeded the record for briefest time traveling around the world on 3 July 2002 on his sixth attempt,^[18] in 320 h 33 min.^[19] Fedor Konyukhov flew solo round the world on his first attempt in a hybrid hot air/helium balloon from 11 to 23 July 2016^[20] for a round-the world time of 268 h 20 min.^[19]

A hot air balloon for manned flight uses a single-layered, fabric gas bag (lifting "envelope"), with an opening at the bottom called the mouth or throat. Attached to the envelope is a basket, or gondola, for carrying the passengers. Mounted above the basket and centered in the mouth is the "burner", which injects a flame into the envelope, heating the air within. The heater or burner is fueled by propane, a liquefied gas stored in pressure vessels, similar to high-pressure forklift cylinders.^[21][22]

Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop nylon or dacron (a polyester).^[23]

During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from the throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore sections. Envelopes can have as few as 4 gores or as many as 24 or more.^[24]

Envelopes often have a crown ring at their very top. This is a hoop of smooth metal, usually aluminium, and approximately 30 cm (1 ft) in diameter. Vertical load tapes from the envelope are attached to the crown ring.

At the bottom of the envelope the vertical load tapes are sewn into loops that are connected to cables (one cable per load tape). These cables, often referred to as flying wires, are connected to the basket by carabiners.

The most common technique for sewing panels together is called the French felled, French fell, or double lap seam.^{[25][26][27][28]} The two pieces of fabric are folded over on each other at their common edge, possibly with a load tape as well, and sewn together with two rows of parallel stitching. Other methods include a flat lap seam, in which the two pieces of fabric are held together simply with two rows of parallel stitching, and a zigzag, where parallel zigzag stitching holds a double lap of fabric.^[27]

The fabric (or at least part of it, the top 1/3, for example) may be coated with a sealer, such as silicone or polyurethane, to make it impermeable to air.^[29] It is often the degradation of this coating and the corresponding loss of impermeability that ends the effective life of an envelope, not weakening of the fabric itself. Heat, moisture, and mechanical wear-and-tear during set-up and pack-up are the primary causes of degradation. Once an envelope becomes too porous to fly, it may be retired and discarded or perhaps used as a "rag bag": cold-inflated and opened for children to run through. Products for recoating the fabric are becoming available commercially.^[30]

A range of envelope sizes is available. The smallest, one-person, basket-less balloons (called "Hoppers" or "Cloudhoppers") have as little as 600 m³ (21,000 cu ft) of envelope volume;^[31] for a perfect sphere the radius would be around 5 m (16 ft). At the other end of the scale, balloons used by commercial sightseeing operations may be able to carry well over two dozen people, with envelope volumes of up to 17,000 m³ (600,000 cu ft).^[31] The most-used size is about 2,800 m³ (99,000 cu ft), allowing to carry 3 to 5 people.

The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have turning vents, which are side vents that, when opened, cause the balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning the wider side of the basket for landing.^[32]

The most common type of top vent is a disk-shaped flap of fabric called a parachute vent, invented by Tracy Barnes.^[33] The fabric is connected around its edge to a set of "vent lines" that converge in the center. (The arrangement of fabric and lines roughly resembles a parachute—thus the name.) These "vent lines" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to the basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse the balloon after landing.

An older, and presently less commonly used, style of top vent is called a "Velcro-style" vent. This too is a disk of fabric at the top of the balloon. However, rather than having a set of "vent lines" that can repeatedly open and close the vent, the vent is secured by "hook and loop" fasteners (such as Velcro) and is only opened at the end of the flight. Balloons equipped with a Velcro-style vent typically have a second "maneuvering vent" built into the side (as opposed to the top) of the balloon. Another common type of top design is the "smart vent", which, rather than lowering a fabric disc into the envelope as in the "parachute" type, gathers the fabric together in the center of the opening. This system can theoretically be used for in-flight maneuvering, but is more commonly used only as a rapid-deflation device for use after landing, of particular value in high winds. Other designs, such as the "pop top" and "MultiVent" systems, have also attempted to address the need for rapid deflation on landing, but the parachute top remains popular as an all-around maneuvering and deflation system.

Besides special shapes, possibly for marketing purposes, there are several variations on the traditional "inverted tear drop" shape. The simplest, often used by home builders, is a hemisphere on top of a truncated cone. More sophisticated designs attempt to minimize the circumferential stress on the fabric, with different degrees of success depending on whether they take fabric weight and varying air density into account. This shape may be referred to as "natural".^[34] Finally, some specialized balloons are designed to minimize aerodynamic drag (in the vertical direction) to improve flight performance in competitions.^[35]

Hot air balloon baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan. These materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large enough to carry thirty.^[36] Larger baskets often have internal partitions for structural bracing and to compartmentalize the passengers. Small holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for passengers climbing in or out.^[37]

Baskets may also be made of aluminium, especially a collapsible aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase portability.^[38] These may be used by pilots without a ground crew or who are attempting to set altitude, duration, or distance records. Other specialty baskets include the fully enclosed gondolas used for around-the-world attempts^[39] and baskets that consist of little more than a seat for the pilot and perhaps one passenger.

The burner unit gasifies liquid propane,^[40] mixes it with air, ignites the mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2 to 3 MW of heat (7 to 10 million BTUs per hour), with double, triple, or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power is needed.^[41][42] The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known as a blast valve. The valve may be spring-loaded, so that it closes automatically, or it may stay open until closed by the pilot. The burner has a pilot light to ignite the propane and air mixture. The pilot light may be lit by the pilot with an external device, such as a flint striker or a lighter, or with a built-in piezoelectric spark.^[43]

Where more than one burner is present, the pilot can use one or more at a time, depending on the desired heat output. Each burner has a metal coil of propane tubing the flame shoots through to preheat the incoming liquid propane. The burner unit may be suspended from the mouth of the envelope or supported rigidly over the basket. The burner unit may be mounted on a gimbal to enable the pilot to aim the flame and avoid overheating the envelope fabric. A burner may have a secondary propane valve that releases propane more slowly and thereby generates a different sound. This is called a whisper burner and is used for flight over livestock to lessen the chance of spooking them. It also generates a more yellow flame and is used for night glows because it lights up the inside of the envelope better than the primary valve.

Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from aluminium, stainless steel, or titanium with a valve at one end to feed the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure gauge. Common tank sizes are 38, 57 and 76 litres (10, 15 and 20 US gallons).^[29] They may be intended for upright or horizontal use and may be mounted inside or outside the basket.

The pressure necessary to force the fuel through the line to the burner may be supplied by the vapor pressure of the propane itself, if warm enough, or by the introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen.^[43] Tanks may be preheated with electrical heat tapes to produce sufficient vapor pressure for cold-weather flying.^[44] Warmed tanks are usually also wrapped in an insulating blanket to preserve heat during the setup and flight.

A balloon may be outfitted with a variety of instruments to aid the pilot. These commonly include an altimeter, a rate-of-climb (vertical-speed) indicator known as a variometer, envelope (air) temperature, and ambient (air) temperature.^[45] A GPS receiver can be useful to indicate ground speed (traditional aircraft air-speed indicators would be useless) and direction.

The combined mass of an average system can be calculated as follows:^[29]

 

1.9%

 

0.7%

 

5.4%

 

10.0%

 

21.2%

 

78.8%

 

100.0%

Component	Pounds	Kilograms	Mass fraction
2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) envelope	250	113.4	3.3%
5-passenger basket	140	63.5
Double burner	50	22.7
3 76 L (20 US gal) fuel tanks full of propane	3 × 135 = 405	183.7
5 passengers	5 × 150 = 750	340.2
Subtotal	1595	723.5
2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) of heated air*	5922	2686.2
Total	(3.76 tons) 7517	3409.7

* Using a density of 0.9486 kg/m³ (0.05922 lb/cu ft) for dry air heated to 99 °C (210 °F).

Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it less dense than the surrounding (ambient) air. The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. This force is the same force that acts on objects when they are in water and is described by Archimedes' principle. The amount of lift (or buoyancy) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside the envelope. For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximal internal temperature is limited to approximately 120 °C (250 °F).^[46]

The melting point of nylon is significantly greater than this maximal operating temperature—about 230 °C (450 °F)—but higher temperatures cause the strength of the nylon fabric to degrade more quickly over time. With a maximal operating temperature of 120 °C (250 °F), balloon envelopes can generally be flown for between 400 and 500 hours before the fabric needs to be replaced. Many balloon pilots operate their envelopes at temperatures significantly less than the maximum to extend envelope-fabric life.

The lift generated by 2,800 m³ (100,000 cu ft) of dry air heated to various temperatures may be calculated as follows:

Air temperature °C (°F)	Air density kg/m3 (lb/cu ft)	Air mass kg (lb)	Lift generated kg (lb)
20 (68)	1.2041 (0.07517)	3,409.7 (7,517)	0, (0)
99 (210)	0.9486 (0.05922)	2,686.2 (5,922)	723.5 (1,595)
120 (248)	0.8978 (0.05605)	2,542.4 (5,605)	867.3 (1,912)

The density of air at 20 °C (68 °F) is about 1.2 kg/m³ (0.075 lb/cu ft). The total lift for a balloon of 2,800 m³ (100,000 cu ft) heated to 99 °C (210 °F) would be 723.5 kg (1,595 lb). This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality, the air contained in the envelope is not all at the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages.

For typical atmospheric conditions (20 °C or 68 °F), a hot air balloon heated to 99 °C (210 °F) requires about 3.91 m³ of envelope volume to lift 1 kilogram (equivalently, 62.5 cu ft/lb). The precise amount of lift provided depends not only upon the internal temperature mentioned above, but the external temperature, altitude above sea level, and humidity of the air surrounding. On a warm day, a balloon cannot lift as much as on a cool day, because the temperature required for launch will exceed the maximum sustainable for nylon envelope fabric. Also, in the lower atmosphere, the lift provided by a hot air balloon decreases about 3% per 1,000 m (1% per 1,000 ft) of altitude gained.^[47]

There are several different types of hot air balloons, all with different means of taking and sustaining flight.

Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on the buoyancy of hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope.^[48] This style of balloon was developed by the Montgolfier brothers and had its first public demonstration on 4 June 1783 with an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes, followed later that year with manned flights.^[49]

Instead of using regular air it is also possible to use lighter than air gasses such as Helium or Hydrogen to lift the balloon,^[51] though this means it is technically not a hot air balloon, though they did influence the design of hybrid balloons.

The 1785 Rozière balloon, is the main type of hybrid balloon, named after its creator, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier. It has a separate cell for a lighter-than-air gas (typically helium), as well as a cone below for hot air (as is used in a hot air balloon) to heat the helium at night. Hydrogen gas was used in the very early stages of development but was quickly abandoned due to the danger of introducing an open flame near the gas, for example when Rozier attempted to cross the English Channel with his prototype, the fire used to heat the air ignited the Hydrogen and killed both him and his copilot thirty minutes after takeoff.^[52] As such, all modern hybrid balloons now use helium as a lifting gas.^[53] These balloons are commonly used for high performance records for hot air balloons.

Solar balloons are hot air balloons that use just solar energy captured by an envelope. These envelopes are more specialized than for other hot air balloons, trying to maximize the amount of solar energy they collect. This can be accomplished by rotating the envelope during flight or by having the envelope colored black or another dark color.^[54] They were pioneered in the 1970s in Europe by Tracy Barnes, Dominic Michaelis, and in the US by Frederick Espoo and Paul Woessher.^[55]

A Thermal airship, or blimp, became a reality in the 1960s. Thermal airships were the first steerable air buoyant vehicles.^[56] They utilized tail fins and a rudder and contained strictly hot air rather than a mix with hydrogen or helium.^[56]

Observation balloons were deployed as early as the American Civil War and used as reconnaissance towers.^[57] The first military funded balloon in America was designed by Thaddeus Lowe on August 2, 1861, for the Union.^[57] His design utilized gas from municipal lines to inflate the balloon as he did not have access to a portable generator.^[57] Observation balloons during this time were all made using multicolored-silk, wicker baskets, and were vertically oriented and tear shaped.^[58] Hydrogen, or illumination gas became the most used inflation fuel by the 20th Century, as it was lighter than air.^[58] Observation balloon usage skyrocketed in Britain by the Royal Engineers at the end of the 19th Century, deploying to Sudan in 1885 and to South Africa during the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902.^[59]

Due to the overall design of hot air balloons, controlled and precise steering of hot air balloons is not possible; it is possible for pilots to try to achieve basic directional control by changing altitude and catching different wind streams.^[60] Wind in the northern hemisphere tends to turn east due to coriolis effect as the altitude increases.

The most effective way of landing a hot air balloon is to reduce the energy in the envelope, either by turning down the flame in Montgolfier and Hybrid balloons, or more directly by opening a flap in the envelope that will release the air/gas inside.^[60]

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To help ensure the safety of pilot and passengers, a hot air balloon may carry several pieces of safety equipment.

To relight the burner if the pilot light goes out and the optional piezo ignition fails, the pilot should have ready access to a means of backup ignition, such as a flint spark lighter. Many systems, especially those that carry passengers, have completely duplicate fuel and burner systems: two fuel tanks, connected to two separate hoses, which feed two distinct burners. This enables a safe landing in the case of a blockage somewhere in one system or if a system must be disabled because of a fuel leak.

A fire extinguisher suitable for extinguishing propane fires is useful. Most balloons carry a 1 or 2 kg AB:E type fire extinguisher.^[61]

A handling or drop line is mandatory safety equipment in many countries. This is a rope or webbing of 20–30 meters in length attached to the balloon basket with a quick-release connection at one end. In very calm winds the balloon pilot can throw the handling line from the balloon so that the ground crew can guide the balloon safely away from obstructions on the ground.^[62]

For commercial passenger balloons, a pilot restraint harness is mandatory in some countries. This consists of a hip belt and a webbing line that together allow for some movement while preventing the pilot from being ejected from the basket during a hard landing.

Further safety equipment may include a first-aid kit, a fire blanket and a strong rescue knife.

At a minimum, the pilot should wear leather or flame-retardant fiber (such as nomex) gloves, so that they may shut off a gas valve in the case of a leak, even if there is a flame present; quick action in this regard can turn a potential catastrophe into a mere inconvenience. The pilot should additionally wear flame-resistant clothing covering their arms and legs; either natural fiber, such as cotton, linen, hemp, or wool, or engineered flame-retardant fiber, such as nomex, is acceptable in this capacity. Most engineered fibers (with the exception of rayon, which is also safe to wear) are thermoplastic; many are also hydrocarbons. This makes such fabrics very much unsuitable to wear near high temperatures, since non-flame-retardant thermoplastics will melt onto the wearer, and most hydrocarbons, whether fibrous or not, are suitable to use as fuels. Natural fiber will singe rather than melt or burn readily, and flame-retardant fiber generally has a very high melting point and is intrinsically non-flammable. Many pilots also advise their passengers to wear similar protective clothing that covers their arms and legs, as well as strong shoes or boots that offer good ankle support. Finally, some balloon systems, especially those that hang the burner from the envelope instead of supporting it rigidly from the basket, require the use of helmets by the pilot and passengers.

The ground crew should wear gloves whenever there is a possibility of handling ropes or lines. The mass and exposed surface to air movement of a medium-sized balloon is sufficient to cause rope friction burns to the hands of anyone trying to stop or prevent movement. The ground crew should also wear sturdy shoes and at least long pants in case of the need to access a landing or landed balloon in rough or overgrown terrain.

As with aircraft, hot air balloons require regular maintenance to remain airworthy. As aircraft made of fabric and that lack direct horizontal control, hot air balloons may occasionally require repairs to rips or snags. While some operations, such as cleaning and drying, may be performed by the owner or pilot, other operations, such as sewing, must be performed by a qualified repair technician and recorded in the balloon's maintenance log book.

To ensure long life and safe operation, the envelope should be kept clean and dry. This prevents mold and mildew from forming on the fabric and abrasion from occurring during packing, transport, and unpacking due to contact with foreign particles. In the event of a landing in a wet (because of precipitation or early morning or late evening dew) or muddy location (farmer's field), the envelope should be cleaned and laid out or hung to dry.

The burner and fuel system must also be kept clean to ensure safe operation on demand. Damaged fuel hoses need to be replaced. Stuck or leaky valves must be repaired or replaced. The wicker basket may require occasional refinishing or repair. The skids on its bottom may require occasional replacement.

Balloons in most parts of the world are maintained in accordance with a fixed manufacturer's maintenance schedule that includes regular (100 flight hours or 12 month) inspections, in addition to maintenance work to correct any damage. In Australia, balloons used for carrying commercial passengers must be inspected and maintained by approved workshops.^[63]

In the case of a snag, burn, or rip in the envelope fabric, a patch may be applied or the affected panel completely replaced. Patches may be held in place with glue, tape, stitching, or a combination of these techniques. Replacing an entire panel requires the stitching around the old panel to be removed, and a new panel to be sewn in with the appropriate technique, thread, and stitch pattern.

Depending on the size of the balloon, location, and intended use, hot air balloons and their pilots need to comply with a variety of regulations.

As with other aircraft in the US, balloons must be registered (have an N-number), have an airworthiness certificate, and pass annual inspections. Balloons below a certain size (empty weight of less than 155 pounds or 70 kg including envelope, basket, burners and empty fuel tanks) can be used as an ultralight aircraft.

In Australia, private balloon pilots are managed by the Australian Ballooning Federation^[64] and typically become members of regional hot air ballooning clubs. Commercial operations carrying fare paying passengers or charging for promotional flights must operate under an Air Operators Certificate from the Australian Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) with a nominated Chief Pilot. Pilots must have different degrees of experience before they are allowed to progress to larger balloons. Hot air balloons must be registered aircraft with CASA and are subject to regular airworthiness checks by authorised personnel.^[65]

In the UK, the person in command must hold a valid Private Pilot's Licence issued by the Civil Aviation Authority specifically for ballooning; this is known as the PPL(B). There are two types of commercial balloon licences: CPL(B) Restricted and CPL(B) (Full). The CPL(B) Restricted is required if the pilot is undertaking work for a sponsor or being paid by an external agent to operate a balloon. The pilot can fly a sponsored balloon with everything paid for with a PPL unless asked to attend any event. Then a CPL(B) Restricted is required. The CPL(B) is required if the pilot is flying passengers for money. The balloon then needs a transport category C of A (certificate of air worthiness). If the pilot is only flying sponsor's guests and not charging money for flying other passengers, then the pilot is exempted from holding an AOC (air operator's certificate) though a copy of it is required.^{[clarification needed]} For passenger flying the balloon also requires a maintenance log.

In the United States, a pilot of a hot air balloon must have a pilot certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), carrying the rating of "Lighter-than-air free balloon", and unless the pilot is also qualified to fly gas balloons, will also carry this limitation: "Limited to hot-air balloons with airborne heater". A pilot does not need a license to fly an ultralight aircraft, but training is highly advised, and some hot-air balloons meet the criteria.

To carry paying passengers for hire (and attend some balloon festivals), a pilot must have a commercial pilot certificate. Commercial hot air balloon pilots may also act as hot air balloon flight instructors. While most balloon pilots fly for the pure joy of floating through the air, many are able to make a living as a professional balloon pilot. Some professional pilots fly commercial passenger sightseeing flights, while others fly corporate advertising balloons.^[66]

• 1989 Alice Springs hot air balloon crash: On 13 August 1989, two hot air balloons collided at Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia, causing one to fall, killing all 13 people on board.
• 2011 Somerset hot air balloon crash: On 1 January 2011, a hot air balloon attempting a high-altitude flight crashed at Pratten's Bowls Club in Westfield, Somerset, near Bath, England, killing both people on board.
• 2012 Carterton hot air balloon crash: On 7 January 2012, a hot air balloon collided with a power line, caught fire and crashed at Carterton, North Island, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board.
• 2012 Ljubljana Marshes hot air balloon crash: On 23 August 2012, a storm blew a hot air balloon to the ground, causing it to catch fire on impact near Ljubljana, Slovenia. The crash killed 6 of the 32 people on board, and injured the other 26.
• 2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash: On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon carrying foreign tourists ignited and crashed near the ancient city of Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 of the 21 people on board, making it the deadliest balloon accident in history.^[67]
• 2016 Lockhart hot air balloon crash: On 30 July 2016, a hot air balloon carrying 16 people caught fire and crashed near Lockhart, Texas. There were no survivors.
• 2021 Albuquerque hot air balloon crash: On 26 June 2021, a hot air balloon carrying five people made contact with a power line and crashed in Albuquerque, New Mexico. All five people on board died as a result of the accident.
• On 14 January 2024, a hot air balloon crashed outside Eloy, Arizona,^[68] killing the three passengers and pilot. Eight skydivers had exited the balloon immediately prior to the incident.
• 2025 Santa Catarina hot air balloon crash: On 21 June 2025, a hot air balloon crashed after catching fire in Praia Grande, Santa Catarina, Brazil, killing 8 of the 21 people on board.^[69][70]

The largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Cameron Balloons of Bristol, England, which also owns Lindstrand Balloons of Oswestry, England. Cameron Balloons, Lindstrand Balloons and another English balloon manufacturing company Thunder and Colt (since acquired by Cameron) have been innovators and developers of special shaped balloons. These hot-air balloons use the same principle of lift as conventional inverted teardrop-shaped balloons, but often sections of the special balloon envelope shape do not contribute to the balloon's ability to stay aloft.

The second largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Ultramagic company, based in Spain, which produces from 80 to 120 balloons per year. Ultramagic can produce very large balloons, such as the N-500 that accommodates as many as 27 persons in the basket, and has also produced many balloons with special shapes, as well as cold-air inflatables.

One of the three largest companies in the world is Kubicek Balloons. From its factory in Brno, Czechia the company ships its products worldwide. Produces from 100 to 115 balloons per year. Kubicek company also focus on special shape balloons, FAA/EASA type certified and are delivered with a Standard Airworthiness Certificate.

In the USA Aerostar International, Inc. of Sioux Falls, South Dakota was North America's largest balloon manufacturer and a close second in world manufacturing before ceasing to build balloons in January 2007. The oldest U.S. certified manufacturer is now Adams Balloons out of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Firefly Balloons, formerly The Balloon Works, is a manufacturer of hot air balloons in Statesville, North Carolina. Another manufacturer is Head Balloons, Inc. of Helen, Georgia.

The major manufacturers in Canada are Sundance Balloons and Fantasy Sky Promotions. Other manufacturers include Kavanagh Balloons of Australia, Schroeder Fire Balloons of Germany, Kubicek Balloons of the Czech Republic, and LLopis Balloons of France.

• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hot air balloon.

• Hot Air Balloon Web Links

Dubai

Dubai in Persian Gulf

Dubai

Dubai in Middle East

Dubai

Dubai in Asia

Dubai دبي Dubayy
City
Dubai's skyline Burj Khalifa and Downtown Dubai Creek Dubai Marina Palm Jumeirah and The World Islands Burj Al Arab Sheikh Zayed Road
Flag Seal   Wordmark
Nicknames:  DXB, Dar Al-Hay, The Pearl of the Gulf,[1] The Venice of the Gulf,[2] The City of the World,[2] The City of Gold[3]
Dubai Dubai in United Arab Emirates Show in UAE   Show OpenStreetMap Show satellite map		Show in Persian Gulf	Show in Middle East	Show in Asia
Coordinates: 25°12′17″N 55°16′15″E / 25.20472°N 55.27083°E / 25.20472; 55.27083
Country	United Arab Emirates
Emirate	Dubai
First mentioned	1095
First established	1822
Founded by	Obeid bin Said & Maktoum bin Butti Al Maktoum
Government
• Type	Absolute monarchy
• Body	Dubai Executive Council
• Director General of Dubai Municipality	Marwan Bin Ghalita[4]
• Ruler of Dubai	Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum
Area [5]
• Urban	1,491 km2 (576 sq mi)
• Metro	3,913 km2 (1,511 sq mi)
Population  (2025)[6]
• City	3,944,751
• Rank	1st
• Urban [7]	4,945,000
• Urban density	3,317/km2 (8,590/sq mi)
• Metro [6]	6,359,527
• Metro density	1,625/km2 (4,209/sq mi)
Demonym	Dubaian
GDP [8]
• City	US$ 134.6 billion (2023)
• Metro	US$ 202.8 billion (2023)
Time zone	UTC+04:00 (UAE Standard Time)
Climate	Hot desert climate (BWh)
Website	tec.gov.ae/en/web/tec/home

Dubai^[a] is the most populous city in the United Arab Emirates and the capital of the Emirate of Dubai.^[10] It is on a creek on the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf. As of 2025, its population stands at 4 million,^[6] 92% of whom are expatriates.^[11] The wider urban area includes Sharjah and has a population of 5 million people as of 2023,^[7] while the Dubai–Sharjah–Ajman metropolitan area has a population of 6 million people.

Founded in the early 18th century as a pearling and fishing settlement, Dubai became a regional trade hub in the 20th century after declaring itself a free port (1901) and extending the Creek (1961).^[12] Modest oil revenue helped accelerate Dubai's development from the 1960s to the 1990s, when the city started to diversify its economy.^[12] In 2018, oil production contributed less than 1% to the emirate's GDP.^[13]

Rapid construction since the 1990s has produced one of the world's densest skylines,^[14] including the world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa. Extensive land-reclamation projects have added more than 300 kilometres (190 mi) of artificial coastline. The city has a large real estate market, especially in the luxury segment.^[15]

Dubai's economy centres on trade, tourism, aviation, financial services, and real estate.^[12][16] The Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC) is one of the world's major financial centres. In 2024, Dubai was the seventh most-visited city globally.^[17] Dubai International Airport (DXB) is the world's busiest airport for international passenger traffic, handling over 92 million passengers in 2024.^[18]

Many theories have been proposed about the origin of the word "Dubai". One theory suggests the word used to be the souq in Ba.^[19] The linguist Zana Vahidzadeh (Dana Pishdar) holds that the word comes from 'money', a reference to the prosperity of the trading centre or that the word refers to 'two brothers'—Deira and Bur Dubai.^[20][21]

The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, but to its alternative meaning of "baby locust" (جراد) due to the abundance of locusts in the area before settlement.^[22]

The history of human settlement in the area now defined by the United Arab Emirates is complex and extensive. It points to extensive trading links between the civilisations of the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and even as far afield as the Levant.^[23] Archaeological finds in the emirate of Dubai, particularly at Al-Ashoosh, Al Sufouh, and the notably rich trove from Saruq Al Hadid^[24] show settlement through the Ubaid and Hafit periods, the Umm Al Nar and Wadi Suq periods, and the three Iron Ages in the UAE. The area was known to the Sumerians as Magan and was a source of metallic goods, notably copper and bronze.^[25]

The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, becoming part of the city's present coastline.^[26] Pre-Islamic ceramics have been found from the 3rd and 4th centuries.^[27] Before the introduction of Islam to the area, people in this region worshiped Bajir (or Bajar).^[27] After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph of the eastern Islamic world conquered southeast Arabia and drove out the Sassanians. Excavations by the Dubai Museum in the region of Al-Jumayra (Jumeirah) found several artefacts from the Umayyad period.^[28]

An early mention of Dubai in 1095 is in the Book of Geography by the Andalusian-Arab geographer Abu Abdullah al-Bakri.^[29] The Venetian pearl merchant Gasparo Balbi visited the area in 1580 and mentioned Dubai (as Dibei) for its pearling industry.^[28]

Dubai is thought to have been established as a pearling and fishing village in the early 18th century^[30] and was, by 1822, a town of some 700–800 members of the Bani Yas tribe and subject to the rule of Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi.^[31] In 1822, a British naval surveyor noted that Dubai was at that time populated by a thousand people living in an oval-shaped town surrounded by a mud wall, scattered with goats and camels. The main footpath out of the village led to a reedy creek, while another trailed off into the desert and merged into caravan routes.^[32]: 17

In 1833, after tribal feuds, members of the Al Bu Falasah tribe seceded from Abu Dhabi and established themselves in Dubai. The exodus from Abu Dhabi was led by Obeid bin Saeed and Maktoum bin Butti, who became joint leaders of Dubai until Ubaid died in 1836, leaving Maktoum to establish the Maktoum dynasty.^[30]

Dubai signed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 with the British government along with other Trucial States, following the British campaign in 1819 against Ras Al Khaimah. This led to the 1853 Perpetual Maritime Truce. Dubai also—like its neighbours on the Trucial Coast—entered into an exclusivity agreement in which the United Kingdom took responsibility for the emirate's security in 1892.

In 1841, a smallpox epidemic broke out in Bur Dubai, forcing residents to relocate east to Deira.^[33] In 1896, fire broke out in Dubai, a disastrous occurrence in a town where many family homes were still constructed from barasti (palm fronds). The conflagration consumed half of Bur Dubai's houses, while the Deira district was said to have been destroyed. The next year, more fires broke out. An enslaved woman was caught in the act of starting one such blaze and was put to death.^[34]

In 1901, Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum established Dubai as a free port with no taxation on imports or exports, and also gave merchants parcels of land and guarantees of protection and tolerance. These policies led merchants not only to move directly from Lingeh, but also from those who had settled in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah (which had historical links with Lingeh through the Al Qawasim tribe) to Dubai.^[35] An indicator of the growing importance of the port of Dubai is the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits annually to Dubai. In 1902, the company's vessels made 21 visits to Dubai, and from 1904 on,^[36] the steamers called fortnightly, trading 70,000 tons of cargo in 1906.^[37] The frequency of these vessels only accelerated Dubai's role as an emerging port and trading hub of preference. Lorimer notes the transfer from Lingeh "bids fair to become complete and permanent",^[38] and also that the town had by 1906 supplanted Lingeh as the chief entrepôt of the Trucial States.^[39]

The "great storm" of 1908 struck the pearling boats of Dubai and the coastal emirates towards the end of the pearling season that year, resulting in the loss of a dozen boats and over 100 men. The disaster was a major setback for Dubai, with many families losing their breadwinners and merchants facing financial ruin. These losses came at a time when the tribes of the interior were also experiencing poverty. In a letter to the Sultan of Muscat in 1911, Butti laments, "Misery and poverty are raging among them, with the result that they are struggling, looting and killing among themselves."^[40]

In 1910, in the Hyacinth incident, the town was bombarded by HMS Hyacinth, with 37 people killed.

As well as expanding its regional trade links, Dubai was also an important regional centre for the collection, sale, and trade of pearls. The collapse of the pearling industry^[when?] plunged the city into a deep depression, and many residents lived in poverty or migrated to other parts of the Persian Gulf.^[26]

In 1937, an oil exploration contract was signed, guaranteeing royalty rights for Dubai and concessionary payments to Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum. But due to World War II, oil was not struck until 1966.^{[32]: 36–37}

In its early days, Dubai was constantly at odds with Abu Dhabi. In 1947, a border dispute between Dubai and Abu Dhabi on the northern sector of their border escalated into war.^[41] Arbitration by the British government resulted in a cessation of hostilities.^[42]

The Al Ras district in Deira and Dubai Creek in the mid 1960s

Despite a lack of oil, Dubai's ruler from 1958, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, used revenue from trading activities to build infrastructure, initially through loans raised from local merchants and the ruler of Kuwait. Private companies were established to build and operate infrastructure, including electricity, telephone services, and both the ports and airport operators.^[43] An airport of sorts (a runway built on salt flats) was established in Dubai in the 1950s and in 1959, the emirate's first hotel, the Airlines Hotel, was constructed. This was followed by the Ambassador and Carlton Hotels in 1968.^[44]

Throughout the late 1950s, the British had urged Sheikh Rashid to approve a town plan to manage an already burgeoning real estate market. In 1959, through the correspondence of the British political agent, Sheikh Rashid invited architect John Harris to Dubai to discuss the parameters of a town plan. In May 1960, Harris returned to Dubai with the plan. Harris, who ran his own architectural practice, had only a matter of weeks to create the plan after receiving aerial photographs of the city that spring. No later than 1961, the British engineering firm Halcrow was marking the city's street system as shown on the plan and hardening designated routes with asphalt. The plan continued to function as a guide for further extensions of Dubai's street system as municipal funding became available. Harris's plan made only minimal proposals to disrupt the commercial and social life in the existing areas of Bur Dubai and Deira. Therefore, new development was proposed outside these areas, further inland from the Gulf. While the town plan of 1960 envisioned a very low-rise city that was not realised, its proposed road system was largely implemented as planned. Harris's firm acted independently of Halcrow, but the plan's accurate representation of ongoing land reclamation and the future Maktoum Bridge, which had not yet been proposed to the municipality, suggests that the two firms kept an open line of communication. The master plan's road system also served as a guide for the municipality in designating utility easements, as these became increasingly necessary.^[45][46]

In 1959, Dubai's first telephone company was established, with 51% owned by IAL (International Aeradio Ltd) and 49% by Sheikh Rashid and local businesspeople. In 1961, both the electricity and telephone companies rolled out operational networks.^[47] The water company (Rashid was chairman and majority shareholder) constructed a pipeline from wells at Awir and a series of storage tanks and, by 1968, Dubai had a reliable supply of piped water.^[47] The same year, a sand tax was briefly imposed by Rashid in an effort to boost trade by monetising the Emirate's most abundant resource. The tax was lifted after 11 days, making it the shortest-lived tax in the region's history.^[48][49]

On 7 April 1961, the Dubai-based MV Dara, a five-thousand-ton British-flagged vessel that plied the route between Basra (Iraq), Kuwait, and Bombay (Mumbai, India), was caught in unusually high winds off Dubai. Early the next morning, in heavy seas off Umm al-Quwain, an explosion tore out the second-class cabins and started fires. The captain gave the order to abandon ship, but two lifeboats capsized, and a second explosion occurred. A flotilla of small boats from Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm al-Quwain picked up survivors, but 238 of the 819 persons on board were lost in the disaster.^[50]

Construction of Dubai's first airport began on the northern edge of the town in 1959, and the terminal building opened for business in September 1960. The airport was initially serviced by Gulf Aviation (flying Dakotas, Herons, and Viscounts) but Iran Air commenced services to Shiraz in 1961.^[47]

In 1962, the British Political Agent noted that "Many new houses and blocks of offices and flats are being built... the Ruler is determined, against advice [from the British authorities] to press on with the construction of a jet airport... More and more European and Arab firms are opening up, and the future looks bright."^[44]

In 1962, with expenditure on infrastructure projects already approaching levels some thought imprudent, Sheikh Rashid approached his brother-in-law, the Ruler of Qatar, for a loan to build the first bridge crossing Dubai Creek. This crossing was completed in May 1963 and was paid for by a toll levied on traffic from the Dubai side of the creek to Deira.^[43]

BOAC was initially reluctant to launch regular flights between Bombay and Dubai, fearing insufficient seat demand. However, by the time the asphalt runway of Dubai Airport was constructed in 1965, opening Dubai to both regional and long-haul traffic, several foreign airlines were competing for landing rights.^[43] In 1970, a new airport terminal building was constructed, which included Dubai's first duty-free shops.^[51]

Throughout the 1960s, Dubai was the centre of a lively gold trade, with 1968 imports of gold at some £56 million. This gold was, in the vast majority, re-exported – mainly to customers who took delivery in international waters off India. The import of gold to India had been banned, and so the trade was characterised as smuggling. However, Dubai's merchants were quick to point out that they were making legal gold deliveries and that it was up to the customer where they took it.^[52]

In 1966, more gold was shipped from London to Dubai than from almost anywhere else in the world (only France and Switzerland shipped more), totaling 4 million ounces. Dubai also took delivery of over $15 million worth of watches and over 5 million ounces of silver. The 1967 price of gold was $35 an ounce, but its market price in India was $68 an ounce – a healthy markup. Estimates at the time put the volume of gold imports from Dubai to India at around 75% of the total market.^[53]

After years of exploration following large finds in neighbouring Abu Dhabi, oil was eventually discovered in territorial waters off Dubai in 1966, albeit in far smaller quantities. The first field was named "Fateh" or "good fortune". This accelerated Sheikh Rashid's infrastructure development plans and triggered a construction boom, resulting in a massive influx of foreign workers, primarily from Asia and the Middle East. Between 1968 and 1975, the city's population grew by over 300%.^[54]

As part of the infrastructure for pumping and transporting oil from the Fateh field, located offshore of the Jebel Ali area of Dubai, two 500,000-gallon storage tanks were built, known locally as "Kazzans",^[55] by welding them together on the beach and then digging them out and floating them to drop onto the seabed at the Fateh field. These were constructed by the Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, which gave the beach its local name (Chicago Beach), which was transferred to the Chicago Beach Hotel, which was demolished and replaced by the Jumeirah Beach Hotel in the late 1990s. The Kazzans were an innovative oil storage solution which meant supertankers could moor offshore even in bad weather and avoided the need to pipe oil onshore from Fateh, which is some 60 miles out to sea.^[56]

Dubai had already embarked on a period of infrastructural development and expansion. Oil revenue, flowing from 1969 onwards, supported a period of growth, with Sheikh Rashid embarking on a policy of building infrastructure and diversifying the economy before the emirate's limited reserves were depleted. Oil accounted for 24% of GDP in 1990 but had fallen to 7% of GDP by 2004.^[57]

Critically, one of the first major projects Sheikh Rashid embarked upon when oil revenue began to flow was the construction of Port Rashid, a deep-water free port built by the British company Halcrow. Originally intended to be a four-berth port, it was extended to sixteen berths during construction.^[58] The project was an outstanding success, with shipping queuing to access the new facilities. The port was inaugurated on 5 October 1972, although its berths were put to use as soon as they were built. Port Rashid was to be expanded in 1975 by 35 berths before the larger Jebel Ali port was constructed.^[57]

Port Rashid was the first of a swath of projects designed to create a modern trading infrastructure, including roads, bridges, schools, and hospitals.^[59]

Dubai and the other "Trucial States" had long been a British protectorate where the British government took care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf, the result of a treaty signed in 1892 named the "Exclusive Agreement". This was to change with Prime Minister Harold Wilson's announcement, on 16 January 1968, that all British troops were to be withdrawn from "East of Aden". The decision was to pitch the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum left by the British withdrawal.^[60]

The principle of union was first agreed upon between the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and Sheikh Rashid of Dubai on 18 February 1968, at a meeting in an encampment at Argoub Al Sedirah, near Al Semeih, a desert stop between the two emirates.^[61] The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union. Over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed—often stormy—as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union never recovered from the October 1969 meeting, when British intervention against aggressive actions by two of the Emirates prompted walkouts by Bahrain and Qatar. They dropped out of talks, leaving six of the seven "trucial" emirates to agree on a union on 18 July 1971.^[62]

On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, and Fujairah, joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, following Iran's annexation of the RAK-claimed Tunbs islands.^[63]

In 1973, Dubai, along with the other emirates, adopted a uniform currency: the UAE dirham.^[64] In that same year, the prior monetary union with Qatar was dissolved, and the UAE dirham was introduced throughout the Emirates.^[65]

Throughout the 1970s, Dubai experienced continued growth fuelled by oil and trade revenues, even as the city witnessed an influx of immigrants fleeing the Lebanese civil war.^[66] Border disputes between the emirates persisted even after the formation of the UAE; it was only in 1979 that a formal compromise was reached, putting an end to disagreements.^[67] In 1979, the establishment of the Jebel Ali port, a deep-water port accommodating larger ships, marked a significant development. Initially facing challenges, Sheikh Mohammed established JAFZA (Jebel Ali Free Zone) around the port in 1985, facilitating the unrestricted import of labour and the export of capital for foreign companies.^[68] Simultaneously, Dubai airport and the aviation industry continued their expansion.

The Gulf War in early 1991 had a negative financial impact on the city, as depositors and traders withdrew funds and halted trading. But Dubai rebounded in a changing political climate and prospered. In the late 1990s, various foreign trading communities—initially from Kuwait during the Gulf War and later from Bahrain amid the Shia unrest—relocated to Dubai.^[69] Dubai served as a refuelling base for allied forces at the Jebel Ali Free Zone during the Gulf War and again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Subsequent significant increases in oil prices prompted Dubai to maintain its focus on free trade and tourism.^[70]

In the early 2000s, construction of artificial islands off Dubai's coast, known as the Palm Islands and The World Islands, began.^[71] The Burj Khalifa opened in Dubai in 2010, surpassing the Taipei 101 to become the tallest skyscraper in the world.^[72]

Dubai's smart city initiatives, including smart tourism, play a key role in advancing the city's growth ambitions, primarily through the Smart Dubai project.^[73] In 2016, the world's first functioning 3D-printed office building was opened in Dubai,^[74] having taken 17 days to build.^[74] Its architect, Killa Design, was the same architect that designed the Museum of the Future.^[75] The construction of Dubai Frame, a 150-meter marvel, commenced in 2014, and was completed in 2017.^[76]

Dubai is on the Persian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates and roughly at sea level (16 m or 52 ft above). The emirate of Dubai borders Abu Dhabi to the south, Sharjah to the northeast, and the Sultanate of Oman to the southeast. Hatta, a minor exclave of the emirate, is surrounded on three sides by Oman and by the emirates of Ajman (in the west) and Ras Al Khaimah (in the north). The Persian Gulf borders the western coast of the emirate. Dubai is positioned at

25°16′11″N 55°18′34″E / 25.2697°N 55.3095°E / 25.2697; 55.3095 and has an area of 1,588 sq mi (4,110 km²), a significant expansion beyond its initial 1,500 sq mi (3,900 km²) designation due to land reclamation from the sea.^[77][78]

Dubai lies directly in the Arabian Desert. Still, its topography differs significantly from that of the southern UAE, with much of Dubai's landscape characterized by sandy desert patterns. In contrast, gravel deserts dominate much of the country's south.^[79] The sand consists mostly of crushed shells and coral and is fine, clean, and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plains, known as sabkha, give way to a north–south running line of dunes. Farther east, the dunes grow larger and are tinged red with iron oxide.^[54]

The flat sandy desert gives way to the Western Hajar Mountains, which run alongside Dubai's border with Oman at Hatta. The Western Hajar chain has an arid, jagged, and shattered landscape, whose mountains rise to about 1,300 metres (4,265 feet) in some places. Dubai has no natural rivers or oases, but it does have a natural inlet, Dubai Creek, which has been dredged to allow large vessels to pass. Dubai also has multiple gorges and waterholes dotting the base of the Western Al Hajar mountains. A vast sea of dunes covers much of southern Dubai and leads into the desert known as The Empty Quarter. Seismically, Dubai is in a very stable zone—the nearest seismic fault line, the Zagros Fault, is 200 kilometres (124 miles) from the UAE and unlikely to affect Dubai.^[80] Experts also say the probability of a tsunami in the region is minimal because the Persian Gulf waters are not deep enough to trigger one.^[80]

The sandy desert surrounding the city supports wild grasses and occasional date palms. Desert hyacinths grow in the sabkha plains east of the city. In contrast, acacia and ghaf trees grow in the flat plains within the proximity of the Western Al Hajar mountains. Several Indigenous trees, such as the date palm and neem, as well as imported trees, such as the eucalyptus and jacaranda, grow in Dubai's natural parks. The MacQueen's bustard, striped hyena, caracal, desert fox, falcon, and Arabian oryx are common in Dubai's desert. Dubai is on the migration path between Europe, Asia, and Africa, and more than 320 migratory bird species pass through it in spring and autumn. The waters of Dubai are home to more than 300 fish species, including the hammour. Marine life off the coast of Dubai includes tropical fish, jellyfish, coral, dugong, dolphins, whales, and sharks. Various types of turtles are also found in the area, including the hawksbill turtle and green turtle, which are listed as endangered species.^[81][82]

Dubai features a hot desert climate (Köppen BWh). Summers are extremely hot, prolonged, windy, and humid, with an average high around 40 °C (104 °F) and overnight lows around 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest month, August. Most days are sunny throughout the year. Winters are mild to warm, with an average high of 24 °C (75 °F) and overnight lows of 14 °C (57 °F) in January, the coolest month.

Dubai summers are also known for very high humidity, which can make them uncomfortable for many, with exceptionally high dew points that can exceed 30 °C (86 °F). Heat index values can reach over 60 °C (140 °F) at the height of summer.^[83] The highest recorded temperature in Dubai is 49.0 °C (120.2 °F).

Very dry, Dubai's average annual precipitation is 79.2 mm (3.12 in). But precipitation has been increasing over the last few decades, with annual precipitation reaching 110.7 mm (4.36 in).^[84] Record-setting flooding inundated Dubai in April 2024, demonstrating a lack of appropriate drainage to deal with the immense challenges precipitated by climate change.^[85]

Dubai has been ruled by the Al Maktoum family since 1833; the emirate is an absolute monarchy. Dubai citizens participate in the electoral college to vote representatives to the Federal National Council of the UAE. The ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is also the vice-president and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and a member of the Supreme Council of the Union (SCU). Dubai appoints eight members to the Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE, the supreme federal legislative body, for two-term periods.^[91]

The Dubai Municipality (DM) was established by the then ruler of Dubai, Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1954 for purposes of city planning, citizen services, and upkeep of local facilities.^[92] It has since then evolved into an autonomous subnational authority, collectively known as the Government of Dubai, which is responsible for both the city of Dubai and the greater emirate.^[93] The Government of Dubai has over 58 governmental departments responsible for security, economic policy, education, transportation, immigration, and is one of only three emirates to have a separate judicial system independent from the federal judiciary of the UAE.^[94] The Ruler of Dubai is the head of government and emir (head of state) and laws, decrees, and court judgments are issued in his name, however, since 2003, executive authority of managing and overseeing Dubai Governmental agencies has been delegated to the Dubai Executive Council, led by the Crown Prince of Dubai Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum. Although no legislative assembly exists, the traditional open majlis (council), where citizens and representatives of the Ruler meet, is often used for feedback on certain domestic issues.^[95][96]

As of September 2019^[update], the population is 3,331,420 – an annual increase of 177,020 people, which represents a growth rate of 5.64%.^[106] The region covers 1,287.5 square kilometres (497.1 mi²). The population density is 408.18/km² – more than eight times that of the entire country. Dubai is the second-most-expensive city in the region and the 20th-most-expensive city in the world.^[107]

As of 2013^[update], only about 15% of the emirate's population was made up of UAE nationals,^[108] with the rest comprising expatriates, many of whom either have been in the country for generations or were born in the UAE.^[109][110] Approximately 85% of the expatriate population (and 71% of the emirate's total population) was Asian, chiefly Indian (51%) and Pakistani (16%); other significant Asian groups include Bangladeshis (9%) and Filipinos (3%).^[111] A quarter of the population (local and foreign) reportedly traces their origins to Iran.^[112] In addition, 16% of the population (or 288,000 persons) living in collective labour accommodation were not identified by ethnicity or nationality, but were thought to be primarily Asian.^[113] 461,000 Westerners live in the United Arab Emirates, making up 5.1% of its total population.^[114][115] There are over 100,000 British expatriates in Dubai, by far the largest group of Western expatriates in the city.^[116] The median age in the emirate was about 27 years. In 2014, there were estimated to be 15.54 births and 1.99 deaths per 1,000 people.^[117] There are other Arab nationals, including GCC nationals.^{[citation needed]}

Arabic is the national and official language of the UAE. The Gulf dialect of Arabic is spoken natively by most Emiratis; some Emiratis also speak Shihhi Arabic.^[118] English is used as a second language. Other major languages spoken in Dubai due to immigration are Malayalam, Sindhi, Gujarati, Urdu, Persian, Hindi, Tamil, Punjabi, Pashto, Bengali, Balochi, Tulu,^[119] Kannada, Sinhala, Marathi, Telugu, Tagalog, and Chinese, in addition to many others.^[120]

Al Salam Mosque in Al Barsha and St. Mary's Catholic Church, Dubai

Article 7 of the UAE's Provisional Constitution declares Islam the official state religion of the UAE. The government subsidises almost 95% of mosques and employs all Imams; approximately 5% of mosques are entirely private, and several large mosques have large private endowments.^[121] All mosques in Dubai are managed by the Islamic Affairs and Charitable Activities Department, also known as "Awqaf", under the Government of Dubai. The Government appoints all Imams.^[122] The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates provides for freedom of religion. Expats held to be preaching religious hatred or promoting religious extremism are usually jailed and deported.^[123]

Dubai has large Christian, Hindu, Sikh, Baháʼí, Buddhist, Jain and other religious communities residing in the city, as well as a small but growing Jewish community.^[125] In 2014, more than 56% of Dubai residents were Muslims, while 25% were Christians, 16% were Hindus, and around 2% were adherent of other religions.^[124] The Churches Complex in Jebel Ali Village is an area for several churches and temples of different religious denominations, especially Christian denominations.^[126] The largest Christian parish in the world is that of St Mary's Catholic Church in Dubai, owing to the large number of migrant workers in the city.^[127]

Non-Muslim groups may own houses of worship where they can practice their religion freely, provided they obtain a land grant and permission to build a compound. Groups that do not have their own buildings may use facilities provided by other religious organisations or worship in private homes.^[128] Non-Muslim religious groups are also permitted to advertise group functions openly and distribute various religious literature. Catholics are served pastorally by the Apostolic Vicariate of Southern Arabia. British preacher Reverend Andrew Thompson claimed that the United Arab Emirates is one of the most tolerant places in the world towards Christians and that it is easier to be a Christian in the UAE than in the UK.^[129] On 5 April 2020, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints announced the building of one of their temples in Dubai. As part of the announcement, church President Russell M. Nelson said, "The plan for a temple in Dubai comes in response to their gracious invitation, which we gratefully acknowledge."^[130]

One of the world's fastest-growing economies,^[131] Dubai's gross domestic product is projected at over US$177 billion in 2021, with a growth rate of 6.1% in 2014.^[132] Although a number of core elements of Dubai's trading infrastructure were built on the back of the oil industry,^[133] revenues from oil and natural gas account for less than 5% of the emirate's revenues.^[134] It is estimated that Dubai produces 50,000 to 70,000 barrels (7,900 to 11,100 m³) of oil a day^[135] and substantial quantities of gas from offshore fields. The emirate's share in the UAE's total gas revenues is about 2%. Dubai's oil reserves have diminished significantly and are expected to be exhausted in 20 years.^[136] Real estate and construction (22.6%),^[137] trade (16%), entrepôt (15%), and financial services (11%) are the largest contributors to Dubai's economy.^[138]

Dubai's non-oil foreign trade stood at $362 billion in 2014. Of the total trade volume, imports accounted for the largest share, at $230 billion, while exports and re-exports to the emirate stood at $31 billion and $101 billion, respectively.^[139]

By 2014, China had emerged as Dubai's largest international trading partner, with total trade of $47.7 billion, up 29% from 2013. India was second among Dubai's key trading partners, with trade totaling $29.7 billion, followed by the United States at $22.62 billion. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was Dubai's fourth-largest trading partner globally and its first in the GCC and the Arab world, with a total trade value of $14.2 billion. Trade with Germany in 2014 totalled $12.3 billion; Switzerland and Japan both at $11.72 billion; and the UK at $10.9 billion.^[139]

Historically, Dubai and its twin across Dubai Creek, Deira (then independent of Dubai City), were important ports of call for Western manufacturers. Most of the new city's banking and financial centres were headquartered in the port area. Dubai remained a major hub for trade throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Dubai has a free trade in gold and, until the 1990s, was the hub of a "brisk smuggling trade"^[64] of gold ingots to India, where gold import was restricted. Dubai's Jebel Ali port, constructed in the 1970s, has the largest human-made harbour in the world and was ranked seventh globally for the volume of container traffic it supports.^[140] Dubai is also a hub for service industries such as information technology and finance, with industry-specific free zones throughout the city.^[141] Dubai Internet City, combined with Dubai Media City as part of TECOM (Dubai Technology, Electronic Commerce and Media Free Zone Authority), is one such enclave, whose members include IT firms such as Hewlett Packard Enterprise, HP Inc., Halliburton, Google, EMC Corporation, Oracle Corporation, Microsoft, Dell, and IBM, and media organisations such as MBC, CNN, BBC, Reuters, Sky News, and AP.^[142] Various programmes, resources, and value-added services support the growth of startups in Dubai and help them connect to new business opportunities.^[143]

The Dubai Financial Market (DFM) was established in 2000 as a secondary market for trading securities and bonds, both local and foreign. As of the fourth quarter of 2006, its trading volume stood at about 400 billion shares, valued at $95 billion. The DFM had a market capitalisation of about $87 billion.^[113] The other Dubai-based stock exchange is NASDAQ Dubai, the Middle East's international stock exchange. It enables a range of companies, including UAE and regional small and medium-sized enterprises, to trade on an exchange with an international brand name, with access to both regional and international investors.^[144]

DMCC (Dubai Multi Commodities Centre) was established in 2002. It is the world's fastest-growing free zone and was nominated for "Global Free Zone of the Year 2016" by The Financial Times Magazine.

Dubai is also known as the City of Gold because a major part of the economy is based on gold trading, with Dubai's total gold trading volumes in H1 2011 reaching 580 tonnes at an average price of US$1,455 per troy ounce.^[145]

A City Mayors survey ranked Dubai 44th among the world's best financial cities in 2007,^[146] while another report by City Mayors indicated that Dubai was the world's 27th richest city in 2012, in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).^[147] Dubai is also an international financial centre (IFC) and has been ranked 37th within the top 50 global financial cities as surveyed by the MasterCard Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index (2007),^[148] and first within the Middle East. Since it opened in September 2004, the Dubai IFC has attracted leading international firms as a regional hub and has established NASDAQ Dubai, which lists equity, derivatives, structured products, Islamic bonds (sukuk), and other bonds. The Dubai IFC model is an independent risk-based regulator with a legislative system consistent with English common law.^[149]

In 2012, the Global City Competitiveness Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Dubai at No. 40 with a total score of 55.9. According to its 2013 research report on the future competitiveness of cities, Dubai will rank 23rd overall in the Index in 2025.^[150] Indians, followed by Britons and Pakistanis are the top foreign investors in Dubai real estate.^[151]

Dubai has launched several major projects to support its economy and develop different sectors. These include Dubai Fashion 2020^[152] and Dubai Design District,^[153] which is expected to become a home to leading local and international designers. The AED 4 billion first phase of the project was completed in 2015.^[154]

As of March 2024, Dubai began operating the world's biggest waste-to-energy facility, which will power approximately 135,000 homes.^[155]

In July 2024, Dubai signed an agreement to develop a logistics hub for food, fruits, and vegetables, planned to be the world's largest of its kind. UAE Minister of Finance Sheikh Maktoum bin Mohammed was present at the signing.^[156]

In 2024, the city of Dubai ranked 12 out of 142 cities in the Smart City Index.^[157]

In September 2019, Dubai's ruler Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum ordered the establishment of the Higher Committee for Real Estate Planning to study and evaluate future real estate construction projects, in order to achieve a balance between supply and demand,^[158] which is seen as a move to curb the pace of construction projects following a decline in property prices.^[159]

The government's decision to diversify from a trade-based, oil-reliant economy to one oriented toward services and tourism increased property value, driving property appreciation from 2004 to 2006. A longer-term assessment of Dubai's property market, however, showed depreciation; some properties lost as much as 64% of their value from 2001 to November 2008.^[160] The large-scale real estate development projects have led to the construction of some of the tallest skyscrapers and largest projects in the world such as the Emirates Towers, the Burj Khalifa, the Palm Islands, and the most expensive hotel, the Burj Al Arab.^[161] Dubai's property market experienced a major downturn in 2008^[162] and 2009 as a result of the slowing economic climate.^[163] By early 2009, the situation had worsened with the Great Recession taking a heavy toll on property values, construction, and employment.^[164] This has had a major impact on property investors in the region, some of whom were unable to release funds from investments made in property developments.^[165] As of February 2009^[update], Dubai's foreign debt was estimated at $80 billion. However, this is a tiny fraction of the world's sovereign debt.^[166]

In Dubai, many of the property owners are residents or genuine investors. However, 2020 Data from the Centre for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS) revealed that several real estate owners in the city were either subject to international sanctions or involved in criminal activities. Some others were public officials, with little likelihood of purchasing it with their known incomes. The report "Dubai Uncovered" names 100 Russian oligarchs, public officials, and Europeans involved in money laundering. Benefiting from Dubai's lack of robust real estate regulations, several corrupt individuals owned properties abroad, laundered illicit funds, and invested in real estate to store their wealth. Names of some of such questionable figures included Daniel Kinahan, Alexander Borodai, Roman Lyabikhov, Tibor Bokor, Ruslan Baisarov, Miroslav Výboh, and others.^[167]

For years, Dubai has been labeled a major hub for illicit cash laundering, primarily through its real estate market. Due to the UAE's lack of robust regulations and extradition treaties with many countries, fugitives have found it a perfect hideout. The "Dubai Unlocked" investigation by journalists from 75 media outlets, in coordination with OCCRP and E24, revealed how Dubai's real estate market became a haven for criminals, money launderers, drug lords, fugitives, political figures accused of corruption, and sanctioned individuals seeking to hide their money there. The investigation was based on data leaks from 2020 and 2022, primarily from the Dubai Land Department and publicly owned utility companies. The EU Tax Observatory and Norway's Centre for Tax Research estimated that, in 2022, foreign ownership of real estate in Dubai was approximately $160 billion. Until 2022, there was no obligation for real estate agents, brokers, and lawyers in Dubai to report large cash or cryptocurrency transactions to authorities.^[168]

Following the February 2022 invasion of Ukraine, property prices in Dubai increased significantly as wealthy Russians began investing in the UAE's real estate. Since 2020, property prices in Dubai have increased by 124%. Meanwhile, the EU Tax Observatory and Norway's Centre for Tax Research reported that Russians have invested around $6.3 billion in Dubai's existing and under-development properties since 2022. The increase in property prices pushed out the British expatriates, and forced them to look for property outside Dubai in cities like Ras Al Khaimah.^[169]

Despite rising property prices, real estate transactions in Dubai reached an all-time high in 2024, totaling 180,987 and worth AED 522.5bn. This marks a 36.5% increase in transaction volume since 2023.^[170]

Tourism is an essential part of the Dubai government's strategy to maintain the flow of foreign cash. Dubai's lure for tourists is based mainly on shopping,^[171][172] but also on its ancient and modern attractions.^[173] As of 2018, Dubai is the fourth-most-visited city in the world based on the number of international visitors and the fastest growing, increasing at a 10.7% rate.^[174] The city hosted 14.9 million overnight visitors in 2016 and was expected to reach 20 million tourists by 2020.^[175] A great tourist attraction in Dubai is the Burj Khalifa, the tallest building in the world, although Jeddah Tower in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia is aiming to be taller.

Dubai has been called the "shopping capital of the Middle East".^[176] Dubai alone has more than 70 shopping centres, including the world's second-largest shopping centre, The Dubai Mall. As of June 2024, the Emirate real estate developer Emaar Properties announced plans to expand the 12-million-square-foot mall for 1.5 billion dirhams ($408 million), adding 240 luxury stores, along with new food outlets.^[177] Dubai is also known for the historical souk districts on either side of its creek. Traditionally, dhows from East Asia, China, Sri Lanka, and India discharged their cargo, and the goods would be bargained over in the souks adjacent to the docks. Dubai Creek played a vital role in sustaining the city's community life and was the resource that originally drove Dubai's economic boom.^[178] As of September 2013^[update], Dubai Creek has been proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[179] Many boutiques and jeweler stores are in the city. Dubai is also known as "the City of Gold", as the Gold Souk in Deira houses nearly 250 gold retail shops.^[180]

Dubai Creek Park in Dubai Creek also plays a vital role in Dubai tourism as it showcases some of the most famous tourist attractions in Dubai such as the Dolphinarium, Cable Car, Camel Ride, Horse Carriage, and Exotic Birds Shows.^[181]

Dubai has a wide range of parks like Safa Park, Mushrif Park, and Hamriya Park. Each is uniquely distinctive. Mushrif Park showcases different houses from around the world. A visitor can view the architectural features of both the exterior and interior of each home.

Some of the most popular beaches in Dubai are Umm Suqeim Beach, Al Mamzar Beach Park, JBR Open Beach, Kite Beach, Black Palace Beach, and Royal Island Beach Club. Mastercard's Global Destination Cities Index 2019 found that tourists spend more in Dubai than in any other city. In 2018, the country topped the list for the fourth consecutive year, with total spend of $30.82 billion. The average daily spend was $553.^[182]

In 2019, Dubai loosened its liquor laws, allowing tourists to purchase alcohol from state-controlled stores. Previously, alcohol was accessible only to locals with special licences. The policy shift came as the United Arab Emirates witnessed a severe economic crisis that led to a drop in alcohol sales by volume.^[183]

In 2021, the UAE was ranked among the 20 most dangerous places for LGBTQ tourists to visit.^[184] In 2022, several LGBTQ tourists who travelled to Dubai were deported. In March 2022, Thai transgender model Rachaya Noppakaroon visited Dubai to perform at the Expo 2020, but was sent back because her passport gave her sex as male.^[185] In another case, a French influencer on TikTok and Snapchat, Ibrahim Godin, was sent back from Dubai because the authorities assumed his male friend travelling with him was his boyfriend. Ibrahim filed a complaint for "public defamation because of sexual orientation", and an investigation was opened by the Vesoul police. He said, "Dubai is not all pretty, all rosy as we see on social networks."^[186][187]

On 2 November 2011, four cities had their bids for Expo 2020^[188] already lodged, with Dubai making a last-minute entry. The delegation from the Bureau International des Expositions, which visited Dubai in February 2013 to examine its readiness for the largest exposition, was impressed by the infrastructure and level of national support. In May 2013, the Dubai Expo 2020 Master Plan was revealed.^[189] Dubai won the right to host Expo 2020 on 27 November 2013.^[190]

The leading site of Dubai Expo 2020 was planned to be a 438-hectare area (1,083 acres), part of the new Dubai Trade Centre Jebel Ali urban development, located midway between Dubai and Abu Dhabi.^[191] Moreover, the Expo 2020 also created various social enlistment projects and monetary boons to the city targeting the year 2020, such as initiating the world's largest solar power project.^[192]

The Dubai Expo 2020 was scheduled to take place from 20 October 2020 until 10 April 2021 for 173 days where there would be 192 country pavilions featuring narratives from every part of the globe, have different thematic districts that would promote learning the wildlife in the forest exhibit too many other experiences.^[193]

Due to the impact of COVID-19, the organisers of Expo 2020 postponed the Expo by one year to begin in 2021 (the new dates are 1 October 2021 to 31 March 2022).^[194][195]

Dubai has targets to build an inclusive, barrier-free, and disability-friendly city, which opened as Expo City Dubai. The city has already implemented changes, including wheelchair-accessible taxis, sloped pavements, and tactile floor indicators at all metro stations for visually impaired passengers.^[196]

Dubai has a rich collection of buildings and structures of various architectural styles. Many modern interpretations of Islamic architecture are found here, due to a boom in construction and architectural innovation in the Arab World in general, and in Dubai in particular, supported not only by top Arab or international architectural and engineering design firms such as Al Hashemi and Aedas, but also by top firms of New York and Chicago.^[33] As a result of this boom, modern Islamic – and world – architecture has literally been taken to new levels in skyscraper building design and technology. Dubai now has more completed or topped-out skyscrapers higher than 2⁄3 km (2,200 ft),

1⁄3 km (1,100 ft), or

1⁄4 km (820 ft) than any other city. A culmination point was reached in 2010 with the completion of the Burj Khalifa (Khalifa Tower), now by far the world's tallest building at 829.8 m (2,722 ft). The Burj Khalifa's design is derived from the patterning systems embodied in Islamic architecture, with the triple-lobed footprint of the building based on an abstracted version of the desert flower hymenocallis which is native to the Dubai region.^[197]

The completion of the Burj Khalifa, following the construction boom that began in the 1980s, accelerated in the 1990s and reached a rapid pace during the 2000s, leaving Dubai with the world's tallest skyline as of 4 January 2010^[update].^[198][199] At The Top in Burj Khalifa, the world's second highest observatory deck after the Shanghai Tower with an outdoor terrace, is one of Dubai's most popular tourist attractions, with over 1.87 million visitors in 2013.^[200]

The Creek Tower had been planned in the 2010s to keep Dubai atop the list of tallest buildings.^[201] However, construction was placed on indefinite hold during the coronavirus pandemic. No date has been announced for the project's continuation.^[202] Dubai is recognised as a "Design City" by UNESCO's Creative Cities Network.

The Burj Al Arab (Arabic: برج العرب, Tower of the Arabs), a luxury hotel, is frequently called "the world's only 7-star", though its management has never made that claim. The term "7-star hotel" was coined by a British journalist to describe their experience of the hotel.^[203] A Jumeirah Group spokesperson said: "There's not a lot we can do to stop it. We're not encouraging the use of the term. We've never used it in our advertising."^[203] The hotel opened in December 1999.

Burj Khalifa, known as the Burj Dubai before its inauguration, is a 828 metres (2,717 ft) high^[204] skyscraper in Dubai, and the tallest building in the world. The structure of the desert flower inspired the tower Hymenocallis. It was constructed by more than 30 contracting companies worldwide, with workers from 100 nationalities, from 2004 to 2009. It's also an architectural icon, named after Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan.^[205] The building opened on 4 January 2010.^[206]

The Palm Jumeirah is an artificial archipelago, created using land reclamation by Nakheel Properties, a company owned by the Dubai government, and designed and developed by Helman Hurley Charvat Peacock/Architects, Inc. It is one of three planned islands, the Palm Islands, which extend into the Persian Gulf. The Palm Jumeirah is the smallest and the original of the three Palm Islands, and is in the Jumeirah coastal area. It was built from 2001 to 2006.^[207]

The World Islands is an archipelago of small artificial islands shaped like a world map in the waters of the Persian Gulf, 4.0 kilometres (2.5 mi) off the coast of Dubai.^[208] The World islands are mainly made of sand dredged from Dubai's shallow coastal waters and are one of several artificial island developments in Dubai. The islands' areas vary from 250,000 to 900,000 square feet. The islands are arranged in a world map shape, and the archipelago spans about 9 km.^[209]

On 14 February 2013, the Dubai Miracle Garden, a 72,000-metre (236,000-foot) flower garden, opened in Dubailand. It is the world's largest flower garden. The garden displays more than 50 million flowers with more than 70 species of flowering plants.^[210] The garden uses treated wastewater from the city's municipality and utilises the drip irrigation method for watering the plants. During the summer seasons from late May to September, when the climate can get extremely hot with an average high of about 40 °C (104 °F), the garden stays closed.^[211][212]

In January 2024, Dubai announced its intention to build the Aeternitas Tower, which will become the world's tallest residential clock tower at a height of 450 m (1,480 ft). That is four times the height of London's Big Ben. The tallest clock tower to date is Makkah Clock Royal Tower in Mecca. The tower's name, "Aeternitas", comes from the ancient Roman religion; she was the divine personification of eternity. The project is a joint venture between Dubai-based real estate developer London Gate and Swiss luxury watch manufacturer Franck Muller.^[213] The tower offers luxury apartments, including 1 to 4-bedroom units, as well as Sky Villas and Sky Mansions, with interiors inspired by Franck Muller's designs.^[214]

Dubai Marina is an artificial canal city, built along a 3-kilometre (2 mi) stretch of Persian Gulf shoreline. As of 2018^[update], it had a population of 55,052.^[215] When the entire development is complete, it will accommodate more than 120,000 people in residential towers and villas.^[216] The 50 million square feet area of the Dubai Marina boasts a centrepiece that includes a 3.5-kilometer water canal which is the heart of the development and provides dual access to the sea, making Dubai Marina a foremost sailing destination.^[217] It is on Interchange 5 between Jebel Ali Port and the area which hosts Dubai Internet City, Dubai Media City, and the American University in Dubai. The first phase of this project has been completed. Dubai Marina was inspired by the Concord Pacific Place development along False Creek in Vancouver, BC, Canada.^[218] Much marine wildlife (especially whales and sharks) has entered the marina because of its proximity to the open sea.^[219]

The structure consists of two towers connected at the bottom, with a sky bridge at the top that connects the 63rd through the 77th levels. The sky bridge houses luxury apartments on the world's highest occupiable floor at 294.36 metres.^{[citation needed]} Known as Jumeirah Gate, it opened in December 2020 and is situated along the beach. The towers have the world's highest infinity pool in a building, on the roof, at a height of 293.906 metres.^[220]

Transport in Dubai is controlled by the Roads and Transport Authority (RTA), an agency of the government of Dubai, formed by royal decree in 2005.^[221] The public transport network has in the past faced congestion and reliability issues which a large investment programme has addressed, including over AED 70 billion of improvements planned for completion by 2020, when the population of the city is projected to exceed 3.5 million.^[222] In 2009, according to Dubai Municipality statistics, there were an estimated 1,021,880 cars in Dubai.^[223] In January 2010, the proportion of Dubai residents who use public transport stood at 6%.^[224]

Five main routes – E 11 (Sheikh Zayed Road), E 311 (Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Road), E 44 (Dubai-Hatta Highway), E 77 (Dubai-Al Habab Road), and E 66 (Oud Metha Road, Dubai-Al Ain Road, or Tahnoun Bin Mohammad Al Nahyan Road)^[225] – run through Dubai, connecting the city to other towns and emirates. Additionally, several important intra-city routes, such as D 89 (Al Maktoum Road/Airport Road), D 85 (Baniyas Road), D 75 (Sheikh Rashid Road), D 73 (Al Dhiyafa Road now named as 2 December street), D 94 (Jumeirah Road), and D 92 (Al Khaleej/Al Wasl Road) connect the various localities in the city. The eastern and western sections of the city are connected by Al Maktoum Bridge, Al Garhoud Bridge, Al Shindagha Tunnel, Business Bay Crossing, and Floating Bridge.^[226]

The RTA operates Dubai's public bus transport system. The bus system services 140 routes and transports over 109 million people in 2008. By the end of 2010, there will be 2,100 buses in service across the city.^[227] In 2006, the transport authority announced the construction of 500 air-conditioned passenger bus shelters, and planned for 1,000 more across the emirates in a move to encourage the use of public buses.^[228]

The RTA licenses all taxi services. Dubai-licensed taxis are easily identifiable by their cream bodywork, with varied roof colours indicating the operator. Dubai Taxi Corporation, a division of the RTA, is the largest operator and operates red-roofed taxis. There are five private operators: Metro Taxis (orange roofs); Network Taxis (yellow roofs); Cars Taxis (blue roofs); Arabia Taxis (green roofs); and City Taxis (purple roofs). In addition, there is a Ladies and Families taxi service (pink roofs) with female drivers, which caters exclusively to women and children. More than 3,000 taxis operate in the emirate, averaging 192,000 trips daily and carrying about 385,000 people. In 2009, taxi trips exceeded 70 million trips, serving around 140.45 million passengers.^{[229][230][231]}

Dubai International Airport (IATA: DXB), the hub for the Emirates airline, serves the city of Dubai and other emirates in the country. The airport is the third-busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic and the world's busiest airport by international passenger traffic.^[233] In addition to being an important passenger traffic hub, the airport is the sixth-busiest cargo airport in world, handling 2.37 million tons of cargo in 2014.^[234] Emirates is one of the national flag carriers of the United Arab Emirates.^[235] As of 2018^[update], it operated internationally, serving over 150 destinations in over 70 countries across six continents.^[236]

The development of Al Maktoum International Airport (IATA: DWC) was announced in 2004. The first phase of the airport, featuring one A380-capable runway, 64 remote stands, one cargo terminal with an annual capacity for 250,000 tonnes of cargo, and a passenger terminal building designed to accommodate five million passengers per year, has been opened.^[237] When completed, Dubai World Central-Al Maktoum International will be the largest airport in the world with five runways, four terminal buildings, and capacity for 160 million passengers and 12 million tons of cargo.^[238][239]

Dubai Metro consists of two lines (Red and Green) that run through the city's financial and residential areas. It was opened in September 2009.^[242] UK-based international service company Serco is responsible for operating the metro. The Red Line is the major backbone, with 29 stations (4 underground, 24 elevated, and one at ground level) running from Rashidiya Station to UAE Xchange Station in Jebel Ali. The Green Line, running from the Etisalat Station to the Creek Station, has 20 stations (8 underground, 12 elevated). An extension to the Red Line connecting the EXPO 2020 site opened on 1 June 2021. A Blue and a Purple Line have also been planned. The Dubai Metro is the first urban train network in the Arabian Peninsula.^[240] The trains are fully automated and driverless.^[243]

A monorail line connecting the Palm Jumeirah to the mainland opened on 30 April 2009.^[244] It is the first monorail in the Middle East.^[245] An extension to connect to the Red Line of the Dubai Metro is planned.^[246]

A tramway located in Al Sufouh runs for 14.5 km (9.0 mi) along Al Sufouh Road from Dubai Marina to the Burj Al Arab and the Mall of the Emirates with two interchanges with the Dubai Metro Red Line. The first section, a 10.6 km (6.6 mi)- long tram line serving 11 stations, was opened in 2014.^[247]

Dubai has announced it will complete a link of the UAE high-speed rail system, which is planned to link with the whole GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council, also known as Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf), and then possibly Europe.^{[citation needed]} The high-speed rail will support passengers and cargo.^[248]

There are two major commercial ports in Dubai, Port Rashid and Port Jebel Ali. Port Jebel Ali is the world's largest human-made harbour, the biggest port in the Middle East,^[249] and the 7th-busiest port in the world.^[140] One of the more traditional methods of getting across Bur Dubai to Deira is by abras, small boats that ferry passengers across the Dubai Creek, between abra stations in Bastakiya and Baniyas Road.^[250] The Marine Transport Agency has also implemented the Dubai Water Bus System. The water bus is a fully air-conditioned boat service connecting selected destinations across the creek. One can also use the tourist water bus service in Dubai. The latest addition to the water transport system is the Water Taxi.^[251] The Water-Taxis can transport a maximum of 20 passengers at a time which provides a smooth journey along Al Mamzar and Dubai Marina via Dubai Creek. It has 40 pickup points across Dubai.^[252]

Dubai is increasingly leveraging its logistics and ports to participate in trade between Europe and China, as well as between Europe and Africa, in addition to oil transport. For this purpose, ports such as Jebel Ali and Mina Rashid are rapidly expanded, and investments are made in their technology. The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the south via the southern tip of India to Mombasa, from there through the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the North Sea.^{[253][254][255]}

Museum of the Future and interior, showing the annual Dubai Future Forum (2024)

The UAE's culture mainly reflects traditional Arab culture. The influence of Arab and Islamic cultures on architecture, music, attire, cuisine, and lifestyle is also pronounced. Five times a day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques scattered across the country. Major holidays in Dubai include Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, and National Day (2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.^[256]

The city's cultural imprint as a small, ethnically homogeneous pearling community was transformed by the arrival of other ethnic groups and nationals—first by Iranians in the early 1900s, and later by Indians and Pakistanis in the 1960s. In 2005, 84% of Dubai's metropolitan population was foreign-born, about half of whom were from India.^[111]

From 2006 to 2022, the weekend had been Friday and Saturday, as a compromise between Friday's holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday and Sunday.^[257] Before 2006, the weekend was Thursday-Friday. On 1 January 2022, Dubai moved to a four-and-a-half-day working week, with the weekend comprising Friday afternoon, Saturday, and Sunday.^[258]

Because of the tourism-driven entrepreneurial approach of many Dubai residents and the high standard of living, Dubai's culture has gradually evolved toward luxury, opulence, and lavishness, with a strong emphasis on leisure-related extravagance.^{[259][260][261]} Dubai is known for its nightlife. Clubs and bars are chiefly found in hotels due to liquor laws. The New York Times called Dubai "the kind of city where you might run into Michael Jordan at the Buddha Bar or stumble across Naomi Campbell celebrating her birthday with a multiday bash".^[262]

Annual entertainment events such as the Dubai Shopping Festival^[263] (DSF) and Dubai Summer Surprises (DSS) attract over 4 million visitors from across the region and generate revenues over $2.7 billion.^[264][265] The International Festivals and Events Association (IFEA), the world's leading events trade association, has crowned Dubai as IFEA World Festival and Event City, 2012 in the cities category with a population of more than one million.^[266][267]

Large shopping malls in the city, such as Deira City Centre, Mirdiff City Centre, BurJuman, Mall of the Emirates, Dubai Mall (the world's second-largest), Dubai Marina Mall, Dubai Hills Mall, Dragon Mart, Dubai Festival City Mall, and Ibn Battuta Mall as well as traditional Dubai Gold Souk, Al Souk Al Kabir (known as Meena Bazaar), and other souks attract shoppers from the region.^[268]

Arabic cuisine is very popular and is available everywhere in the city, from the small shawarma diners in Deira and Al Karama to the restaurants in Dubai's hotels. Fast food, South Asian, and Chinese cuisines are also very popular and are widely available. The sale and consumption of pork is regulated and is legally permitted to be sold only to non-Muslims, in designated areas of supermarkets and airports.^[269] Similarly, the sale of alcoholic beverages is also regulated. A liquor permit is required to purchase alcohol, but it is available at hotel bars and restaurants.^[270] Shisha and qahwa boutiques are also popular in Dubai. Biryani is also popular in Dubai.^[271]

The inaugural Dubai Food Festival was held between 21 February and 15 March 2014.^[272] According to Vision magazine, the event was aimed at enhancing and celebrating Dubai's position as the gastronomic capital of the region. The festival was designed to showcase the variety of flavours and cuisines on offer in Dubai, featuring dishes from over 200 nationalities.^[273] The next food festival was held between 23 February 2017 and 11 March 2017.^[274]

Dubai Opera opened its doors on 31 August 2016 in Downtown Dubai with a performance by Plácido Domingo. The venue is a 2000-seat, multifunctional performing arts centre that can host not only theatrical shows, concerts, and operas, but also weddings, gala dinners, banquets, and conferences. Arabic movies are popular in Dubai and the UAE. Since 2004, the city has hosted the annual Dubai International Film Festival which serves as a showcase for Arab and Middle Eastern filmmaking talent.^[275] The Dubai Desert Rock Festival was also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists but is no longer held in Dubai.

One of the lesser-known sides of Dubai is the importance of its young contemporary art gallery scene. Since 2008, the leading contemporary art galleries such as Carbon 12 Dubai,^[276] Green Art, gallery Isabelle van den Eynde, and The Third Line have brought the city onto the international art map. Art Dubai, the region's growing and reputable art fair, is also a major contributor to the development of the contemporary art scene.^[277] The Theatre of Digital Art Dubai (ToDA) opened in 2020 and presents immersive digital art, including contemporary work.^[278]

Many international news agencies, such as Reuters, APTN, Bloomberg L.P., and Middle East Broadcasting Centre (MBC), operate in Dubai Media City and Dubai Internet City. Additionally, several local network television channels, such as Dubai One (formerly Channel 33) and Dubai TV (EDTV), provide programming in English and Arabic, respectively. Dubai is also the headquarters for several print media outlets. Dar Al Khaleej, Al Bayan, and Al Ittihad are the city's largest circulating Arabic language newspapers,^[279] while Gulf News, Khaleej Times, Khaleej Mag, and 7days are the largest circulating English newspapers.^[280]

Etisalat, the government-owned telecommunications provider, held a virtual monopoly over telecommunications services in Dubai before the establishment of other, smaller telecommunications companies, such as Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company (EITC—better known as Du) in 2006. The Internet was introduced into the UAE (and therefore Dubai) in 1995. The network has an Internet bandwidth of 7.5 Gbit/s and supports 49 STM-1 links.^[281] Dubai houses two of four Domain Name System (DNS) data centres in the country (DXBNIC1, DXBNIC2).^[282] Censorship is common in Dubai and used by the government to control content that it believes violates the cultural and political sensitivities of Emirates.^[283] Homosexuality, drugs, and the theory of evolution are generally considered taboo.^[270][284]

Internet content is regulated in Dubai. Etisalat uses a proxy server to filter Internet content the government deems inconsistent with the values of the country, such as sites that provide information on how to bypass the proxy; sites about dating, gay and lesbian networks, and pornography; and formerly sites originating from Israel.^[285] Emirates Media and Internet (a division of Etisalat) notes that as of 2002^[update], 76% of Internet users are male. About 60% of Internet users were Asian, and 25% were Arab. Dubai enacted the Electronic Transactions and Commerce Law in 2002, which addresses digital signatures and electronic registers. It prohibits Internet Service Providers (ISPs) from disclosing information gathered in the course of providing services.^[286] The penal code contains official provisions that prohibit digital access to pornography; however, it does not address cyber crime or data protection.^[287]

In 2019, the Italian artist Princess Bee produced "Hi Dubai", the first cross-media project that reveals the "soul of the city" through the life and work experiences of 25 Emirati and expat women. The series also promoted the Emirate's lifestyle and main events to attract young people to visit and live in Dubai. "Hi Dubai" was on air on the national channel Dubai One TV in prime time, after the National News, during the UAE National Day week; then distributed online on Dubai Post and in-flight on ICE across all Emirates Airlines flights.^[288]

Football and cricket are the most popular sports in Dubai. The headquarters of the International Cricket Council is in Dubai. Three football teams (Al Wasl FC, Shabab Al-Ahli Dubai FC, and Al Nasr SC) represent Dubai in UAE Pro-League.^[270] Al-Wasl have the second-most championships in the UAE League, after Al Ain. Dubai also hosts both the annual Dubai Tennis Championships and The Legends Rock Dubai tennis tournaments, as well as the Dubai Desert Classic golf tournament and the DP World Tour Championship, all of which attract sports stars from around the world. The Dubai World Cup, a thoroughbred horse race, is held annually at the Meydan Racecourse. The city's top basketball team has traditionally been Shabab Al Ahli Basket. Dubai also hosts the traditional rugby union tournament, Dubai Sevens, part of the Sevens World Series. Event pictures from Rugby 7 Dubai 2015. In 2009, Dubai hosted the 2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens. Auto racing is also a major sport in Dubai; the Dubai Autodrome hosts many auto racing events throughout the year. Another sporting event in Dubai is the Dubai Run, which is part of the Dubai Fitness Challenge and the world's largest free fun run, a main highlight of the challenge since 2017.^[289] It also features a state-of-the-art indoor and outdoor Kartdrome, popular among racing enthusiasts and recreational riders. The Indian Premier League cricket competition was held in the UAE in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 12 June, Tommy Fleetwood, 7-time DP World Tour winner, was declared World Global Ambassador.^[290] In 2025, Dubai introduced the "Dubai Sports Strategy 2033", a long-term framework designed to support the emirate’s sports sector and strengthen its position as a global sports destination. The strategy outlines initiatives to expand community participation in physical activity, enhance the quality and number of sporting events, and develop local talent across multiple disciplines. It also aims to increase the economic contribution of Dubai’s sports industry through targeted programmes and infrastructure development.^[291]

The Emirati attire is typical of several countries in the Arabian Peninsula. Women usually wear the "abaya", a long black robe, with a hijab (a headscarf that covers the neck and part of the head, all of the hair and the ears). Some women may wear a niqab that covers the mouth and nose, leaving only the eyes exposed. Men wear the "kandurah" also referred to as "dishdasha" or even "thawb" (long white robe) and the headscarf (ghotrah). The traditional ghutrah in the UAE is white and held in place by an accessory called "egal", which resembles a black cord. Younger Emiratis prefer to wear red-and-white ghutrah and tie them around their heads like turbans.^[292]

The dress code is never compulsory; many people wear Western or other Eastern clothing. However, prohibitions on "indecent clothing" or revealing too much skin are aspects of the UAE to which Dubai's visitors are expected to conform and are encoded in Dubai's criminal law.^[293] The UAE has enforced decency regulations in most public places, aside from waterparks, beaches, clubs, and bars.^[294]

The school system in Dubai follows the United Arab Emirates' system. As of 2009^[update], there are 79 public schools run by the Ministry of Education that serve Emiratis and expatriate Arab people, as well as 207 private schools.^[295] The medium of instruction in public schools is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language, while most of the private schools use English as their medium of instruction. Currently, only the Swiss International Scientific School in Dubai claims to offer parallel streams in different languages – bilingual English/French or English/German.^[296] Most private schools cater to one or more expatriate communities.^[297]

Some 36 schools offer international education using one or more of the four International Baccalaureate Programmes for students aged 3–19.^[298] Currently, 15 schools^[299] have introduced the IB Career-related Programme that can be combined with a vocational qualification such as a BTEC.^[300]

While there are more UK-curriculum-based schools in Dubai than any other curriculum, more students attend Indian-curriculum schools, which tend to be considerably larger and cost less to attend. There are 34 Indian-curriculum schools in the emirate,^[301] most of which offer the CBSE, and just a handful the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Indian syllabus. Examples of Indian-curriculum schools include IHS, DPS, and DMHS. There are a small number of Pakistani schools in Dubai offering the FBISE curriculum for expatriate children.

A total of 18 schools offer British primary education through age 11.^[302] There are 64 schools that offer a variation of a UK curriculum style secondary education,^[303] either a pure GCSE and A-Level offering, or increasingly I/GCSE up to 16, and then the IB Diploma post-16. Currently, no school in the UAE offers IB or A-level at age 16, but several schools have said they will do so in the future. British style eleven-to-eighteen secondary schools offering General Certificate of Secondary Education and A-Levels include Dubai College, Dubai British School, and English Language School Pvt. Some schools, such as The American School of Dubai, also offer the curriculum of the United States.^[304]

Dubai has a very active education regulator, the KHDA, which is best known for its school ratings, but actually has a wide mandate^[305] when it comes to school improvement in the emirate. Its inspections truly matter, and there is no doubt that school quality has improved as a result of its implementation. A total of 17 schools are currently rated Outstanding (2020), and a further 40 are rated Very Good. Parents in general rate schools highly.^[306]

The top 10 largest universities by student numbers in Dubai according to the KHDA (2024)^[307] are Middlesex University Dubai, Heriot-Watt University Dubai, University of Wollongong in Dubai, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Dubai, American University in Dubai, S P Jain School of Global Management, Rochester Institute of Technology of Dubai, Amity University Dubai, University of Birmingham Dubai, and Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani Dubai. They offer courses in all major subjects, with the most popular subject areas being Business, followed by Information Technology, then Engineering.^[307] Most Universities in Dubai are located in the two Educational Zones (Knowledge Village or Academic City). In 2013, Synergy University Dubai Campus^[308] opened its campus in Jumeirah Lakes Towers being a first University in Dubai to be located outside of Educational Zones (Knowledge Village or Academic City).^[309]

Only 4 Dubai Universities are present in the QS World University Rankings 2024/2025.^[310] To allow the assessment of more UAE Universities, the Ministry of Education launched The National Higher Education Institutions Classification Framework^[311] which classifies UAE Universities based on their research and teaching. Of the top 10 largest Dubai universities University of Wollongong in Dubai, American University in Dubai, and Rochester Institute of Technology of Dubai, were all classified as "Very Good" within The National Higher Education Institutions Classification Framework.^[311]

Healthcare in Dubai can be divided into two different sectors: public and private. Each Emirate can set healthcare standards in accordance with its internal laws, though the standards and regulations rarely differ significantly. Public hospitals in Dubai were first established in the late 1950s and continued to expand alongside public health initiatives. There are now 28 hospitals in Dubai, six public and 22 private, with three more major hospitals scheduled to be built by 2025.^[312]

By the end of 2012, there were also a total of 1,348 medical clinics, 97% of which were operated privately.^[313] In 2015, Dubai phased in mandatory health insurance for all inhabitants, thereby leading to increased demand for medical services.^[314]

Dubai Hospital is a public hospital in Dubai and is part of Dubai Department of Health and Medical Services. Although the decision to construct Dubai Hospital was made in 1977, it did not begin admitting patients until March 1983.^[315] The hospital consists of 14 stories, with the lower two for Accident & Emergency and outpatients, and the upper ten floors.

Dubai is twinned with:^[316]

• Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates
• Al Sufouh Archaeological Site
• Dubai Desert Conservation Reserve
• List of buildings in Dubai
• Outline of Dubai
• Sanitation in Dubai
• Sustainability in Dubai

• Syed Ali. Dubai: Gilded Cage (Yale University Press; 2010) 240 pages. Focuses on the Arab emirate's treatment of foreign workers.
• Heiko Schmid: Economy of Fascination: Dubai and Chicago as Themed Urban Landscapes, Berlin, Stuttgart, 2009, ISBN 978-3-443-37014-5.
• John M. Smith: Dubai The Maktoum Story, Norderstedt, 2007, ISBN 3-8334-4660-9.

• دبي.امارات (Archived 29 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine) – official government portal
• www.dm.gov.ae – Dubai Municipality website