Concrete Lifting Crystal Lake

Polyurethane (/ËŒpÉ’liˈjÊŠÉ™rəˌθeɪn, -jʊəˈrÉ›θeɪn/;^[1] often abbreviated PUR and PU) is a class of polymers composed of organic units joined by carbamate (urethane) links. In contrast to other common polymers such as polyethylene and polystyrene, polyurethane does not refer to a single type of polymer but a group of polymers. Unlike polyethylene and polystyrene, polyurethanes can be produced from a wide range of starting materials, resulting in various polymers within the same group. This chemical variety produces polyurethanes with different chemical structures leading to many different applications. These include rigid and flexible foams, and coatings, adhesives, electrical potting compounds, and fibers such as spandex and polyurethane laminate (PUL). Foams are the largest application accounting for 67% of all polyurethane produced in 2016.^[2]

A polyurethane is typically produced by reacting a polymeric isocyanate with a polyol.^[3] Since a polyurethane contains two types of monomers, which polymerize one after the other, they are classed as alternating copolymers. Both the isocyanates and polyols used to make a polyurethane contain two or more functional groups per molecule.

Global production in 2019 was 25 million metric tonnes,^[4] accounting for about 6% of all polymers produced in that year.

Otto Bayer and his coworkers at IG Farben in Leverkusen, Germany, first made polyurethanes in 1937.^[5][6] The new polymers had some advantages over existing plastics that were made by polymerizing olefins or by polycondensation, and were not covered by patents obtained by Wallace Carothers on polyesters.^[7] Early work focused on the production of fibers and flexible foams and PUs were applied on a limited scale as aircraft coating during World War II.^[7] Polyisocyanates became commercially available in 1952, and production of flexible polyurethane foam began in 1954 by combining toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and polyester polyols. These materials were also used to produce rigid foams, gum rubber, and elastomers. Linear fibers were produced from hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) and 1,4-Butanediol (BDO).

DuPont introduced polyethers, specifically poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol, in 1956. BASF and Dow Chemical introduced polyalkylene glycols in 1957. Polyether polyols were cheaper, easier to handle and more water-resistant than polyester polyols. Union Carbide and Mobay, a U.S. Monsanto/Bayer joint venture, also began making polyurethane chemicals.^[7] In 1960 more than 45,000 metric tons of flexible polyurethane foams were produced. The availability of chlorofluoroalkane blowing agents, inexpensive polyether polyols, and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) allowed polyurethane rigid foams to be used as high-performance insulation materials. In 1967, urethane-modified polyisocyanurate rigid foams were introduced, offering even better thermal stability and flammability resistance. During the 1960s, automotive interior safety components, such as instrument and door panels, were produced by back-filling thermoplastic skins with semi-rigid foam.

In 1969, Bayer exhibited an all-plastic car in Düsseldorf, Germany. Parts of this car, such as the fascia and body panels, were manufactured using a new process called reaction injection molding (RIM), in which the reactants were mixed and then injected into a mold. The addition of fillers, such as milled glass, mica, and processed mineral fibers, gave rise to reinforced RIM (RRIM), which provided improvements in flexural modulus (stiffness), reduction in coefficient of thermal expansion and better thermal stability. This technology was used to make the first plastic-body automobile in the United States, the Pontiac Fiero, in 1983. Further increases in stiffness were obtained by incorporating pre-placed glass mats into the RIM mold cavity, also known broadly as resin injection molding, or structural RIM.

Starting in the early 1980s, water-blown microcellular flexible foams were used to mold gaskets for automotive panels and air-filter seals, replacing PVC polymers. Polyurethane foams are used in many automotive applications including seating, head and arm rests, and headliners.

Polyurethane foam (including foam rubber) is sometimes made using small amounts of blowing agents to give less dense foam, better cushioning/energy absorption or thermal insulation. In the early 1990s, because of their impact on ozone depletion, the Montreal Protocol restricted the use of many chlorine-containing blowing agents, such as trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11). By the late 1990s, blowing agents such as carbon dioxide, pentane, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) and 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane (HFC-245fa) were widely used in North America and the EU, although chlorinated blowing agents remained in use in many developing countries. Later, HFC-134a was also banned due to high ODP and GWP readings, and HFC-141B was introduced in early 2000s as an alternate blowing agent in developing nations.^[8]

Polyurethanes are produced by reacting diisocyanates with polyols,^{[9][10][11][12][13][14]} often in the presence of a catalyst, or upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation.^[15] Common catalysts include tertiary amines, such as DABCO, DMDEE, or metallic soaps, such as dibutyltin dilaurate. The stoichiometry of the starting materials must be carefully controlled as excess isocyanate can trimerise, leading to the formation of rigid polyisocyanurates. The polymer usually has a highly crosslinked molecular structure, resulting in a thermosetting material which does not melt on heating; although some thermoplastic polyurethanes are also produced.

$\displaystyle \beginarrayl\ce R-N=C=O+H2O->[\ce step\ 1]R1-\underset \atop \displaystyle HN-\overset \displaystyle O \atop \C-O-H->[\ce step\ 2][\ce decomposes]R-NH2\ +\ CO2(g)\\\ce R-N=C=O+R-NH2->[\ce step\ 3]-R-\underset \atop \displaystyle HN-\overset \displaystyle O \atop \C-\underset \atop \displaystyle HN-R-\endarray$

Carbon dioxide gas and urea links formed by reacting water and isocyanate

The most common application of polyurethane is as solid foams, which requires the presence of a gas, or blowing agent, during the polymerization step. This is commonly achieved by adding small amounts of water, which reacts with isocyanates to form CO₂ gas and an amine, via an unstable carbamic acid group. The amine produced can also react with isocyanates to form urea groups, and as such the polymer will contain both these and urethane linkers. The urea is not very soluble in the reaction mixture and tends to form separate "hard segment" phases consisting mostly of polyurea. The concentration and organization of these polyurea phases can have a significant impact on the properties of the foam.^[16]

The type of foam produced can be controlled by regulating the amount of blowing agent and also by the addition of various surfactants which change the rheology of the polymerising mixture. Foams can be either "closed-cell", where most of the original bubbles or cells remain intact, or "open-cell", where the bubbles have broken but the edges of the bubbles are stiff enough to retain their shape, in extreme cases reticulated foams can be formed. Open-cell foams feel soft and allow air to flow through, so they are comfortable when used in seat cushions or mattresses. Closed-cell foams are used as rigid thermal insulation. High-density microcellular foams can be formed without the addition of blowing agents by mechanically frothing the polyol prior to use. These are tough elastomeric materials used in covering car steering wheels or shoe soles.

The properties of a polyurethane are greatly influenced by the types of isocyanates and polyols used to make it. Long, flexible segments, contributed by the polyol, give soft, elastic polymer. High amounts of crosslinking give tough or rigid polymers. Long chains and low crosslinking give a polymer that is very stretchy, short chains with many crosslinks produce a hard polymer while long chains and intermediate crosslinking give a polymer useful for making foam. The choices available for the isocyanates and polyols, in addition to other additives and processing conditions allow polyurethanes to have the very wide range of properties that make them such widely used polymers.

The main ingredients to make a polyurethane are di- and tri-isocyanates and polyols. Other materials are added to aid processing the polymer or to modify the properties of the polymer. PU foam formulation sometimes have water added too.

Isocyanates used to make polyurethane have two or more isocyanate groups on each molecule. The most commonly used isocyanates are the aromatic diisocyanates, toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, (MDI). These aromatic isocyanates are more reactive than aliphatic isocyanates.

TDI and MDI are generally less expensive and more reactive than other isocyanates. Industrial grade TDI and MDI are mixtures of isomers and MDI often contains polymeric materials. They are used to make flexible foam (for example slabstock foam for mattresses or molded foams for car seats),^[17] rigid foam (for example insulating foam in refrigerators) elastomers (shoe soles, for example), and so on. The isocyanates may be modified by partially reacting them with polyols or introducing some other materials to reduce volatility (and hence toxicity) of the isocyanates, decrease their freezing points to make handling easier or to improve the properties of the final polymers.

Aliphatic and cycloaliphatic isocyanates are used in smaller quantities, most often in coatings and other applications where color and transparency are important since polyurethanes made with aromatic isocyanates tend to darken on exposure to light.^{[page needed][18]} The most important aliphatic and cycloaliphatic isocyanates are 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), 1-isocyanato-3-isocyanatomethyl-3,5,5-trimethyl-cyclohexane (isophorone diisocyanate, IPDI), and 4,4′-diisocyanato dicyclohexylmethane (H₁₂MDI or hydrogenated MDI). Other more specialized isocyanates include Tetramethylxylylene diisocyanate (TMXDI).

Polyols are polymers in their own right and have on average two or more hydroxyl groups per molecule. They can be converted to polyether polyols by co-polymerizing ethylene oxide and propylene oxide with a suitable polyol precursor.^[19] Polyester polyols are made by the polycondensation of multifunctional carboxylic acids and polyhydroxyl compounds. They can be further classified according to their end use. Higher molecular weight polyols (molecular weights from 2,000 to 10,000) are used to make more flexible polyurethanes while lower molecular weight polyols make more rigid products.

Polyols for flexible applications use low functionality initiators such as dipropylene glycol (f = 2), glycerine (f = 3), or a sorbitol/water solution (f = 2.75).^[20] Polyols for rigid applications use higher functionality initiators such as sucrose (f = 8), sorbitol (f = 6), toluenediamine (f = 4), and Mannich bases (f = 4). Propylene oxide and/or ethylene oxide is added to the initiators until the desired molecular weight is achieved. The order of addition and the amounts of each oxide affect many polyol properties, such as compatibility, water-solubility, and reactivity. Polyols made with only propylene oxide are terminated with secondary hydroxyl groups and are less reactive than polyols capped with ethylene oxide, which contain primary hydroxyl groups. Incorporating carbon dioxide into the polyol structure is being researched by multiple companies.

Graft polyols (also called filled polyols or polymer polyols) contain finely dispersed styrene–acrylonitrile, acrylonitrile, or polyurea (PHD) polymer solids chemically grafted to a high molecular weight polyether backbone. They are used to increase the load-bearing properties of low-density high-resiliency (HR) foam, as well as add toughness to microcellular foams and cast elastomers. Initiators such as ethylenediamine and triethanolamine are used to make low molecular weight rigid foam polyols that have built-in catalytic activity due to the presence of nitrogen atoms in the backbone. A special class of polyether polyols, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycols, which are made by polymerizing tetrahydrofuran, are used in high performance coating, wetting and elastomer applications.

Conventional polyester polyols are based on virgin raw materials and are manufactured by the direct polyesterification of high-purity diacids and glycols, such as adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol. Polyester polyols are usually more expensive and more viscous than polyether polyols, but they make polyurethanes with better solvent, abrasion, and cut resistance. Other polyester polyols are based on reclaimed raw materials. They are manufactured by transesterification (glycolysis) of recycled poly(ethyleneterephthalate) (PET) or dimethylterephthalate (DMT) distillation bottoms with glycols such as diethylene glycol. These low molecular weight, aromatic polyester polyols are used in rigid foam, and bring low cost and excellent flammability characteristics to polyisocyanurate (PIR) boardstock and polyurethane spray foam insulation.

Specialty polyols include polycarbonate polyols, polycaprolactone polyols, polybutadiene polyols, and polysulfide polyols. The materials are used in elastomer, sealant, and adhesive applications that require superior weatherability, and resistance to chemical and environmental attack. Natural oil polyols derived from castor oil and other vegetable oils are used to make elastomers, flexible bunstock, and flexible molded foam.

Co-polymerizing chlorotrifluoroethylene or tetrafluoroethylene with vinyl ethers containing hydroxyalkyl vinyl ether produces fluorinated (FEVE) polyols. Two-component fluorinated polyurethanes prepared by reacting FEVE fluorinated polyols with polyisocyanate have been used to make ambient cure paints and coatings. Since fluorinated polyurethanes contain a high percentage of fluorine–carbon bonds, which are the strongest bonds among all chemical bonds, fluorinated polyurethanes exhibit resistance to UV, acids, alkali, salts, chemicals, solvents, weathering, corrosion, fungi and microbial attack. These have been used for high performance coatings and paints.^[21]

Phosphorus-containing polyols are available that become chemically bonded to the polyurethane matrix for the use as flame retardants. This covalent linkage prevents migration and leaching of the organophosphorus compound.

Interest in sustainable "green" products raised interest in polyols derived from vegetable oils,^[22][23][24] fatty acids,^[25] lignin, sorbitol,^[26] etc. These are mostly contributing to polyol part. There are attempts made to prepare isocyanate part using bio-derived material. However, as far as commercialization is concern, polyol part is more targeted being easy and required in more quantity than isocyanate part. Various oils used in the preparation polyols for polyurethanes include soybean oil, cottonseed oil, neem seed oil, algae oil,^[27][28] and castor oil. Vegetable oils are functionalized in various ways and modified to polyetheramides, polyethers, alkyds, etc. Renewable sources used to prepare polyols may be fatty acids or dimer fatty acids.^[29] Some biobased and isocyanate-free polyurethanes exploit the reaction between polyamines and cyclic carbonates to produce polyhydroxyurethanes.^[30]

Chain extenders (f = 2) and cross linkers (f ≥ 3) are low molecular weight hydroxyl and amine terminated compounds that play an important role in the polymer morphology of polyurethane fibers, elastomers, adhesives, and certain integral skin and microcellular foams.

The elastomeric properties of these materials are derived from the phase separation of the hard and soft copolymer segments of the polymer, such that the urethane hard segment domains serve as cross-links between the amorphous polyether (or polyester) soft segment domains. This phase separation occurs because the mainly nonpolar, low melting soft segments are incompatible with the polar, high melting hard segments. The soft segments, which are formed from high molecular weight polyols, are mobile and are normally present in coiled formation, while the hard segments, which are formed from the isocyanate and chain extenders, are stiff and immobile. As the hard segments are covalently coupled to the soft segments, they inhibit plastic flow of the polymer chains, thus creating elastomeric resiliency. Upon mechanical deformation, a portion of the soft segments are stressed by uncoiling, and the hard segments become aligned in the stress direction. This reorientation of the hard segments and consequent powerful hydrogen bonding contributes to high tensile strength, elongation, and tear resistance values.^{[12][31][32][33][34]} The choice of chain extender also determines flexural, heat, and chemical resistance properties.

The most important chain extenders are ethylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BDO or BDO), 1,6-hexanediol, cyclohexane dimethanol and hydroquinone bis(2-hydroxyethyl) ether (HQEE). All of these glycols form polyurethanes that phase separate well and form well defined hard segment domains, and are melt processable. They are all suitable for thermoplastic polyurethanes with the exception of ethylene glycol, since its derived bis-phenyl urethane undergoes unfavorable degradation at high hard segment levels.^[10] Diethanolamine and triethanolamine are used in flex molded foams to build firmness and add catalytic activity. Diethyltoluenediamine is used extensively in RIM, and in polyurethane and polyurea elastomer formulations.

Polyurethane (/ËŒpÉ’liˈjÊŠÉ™rəˌθeɪn, -jʊəˈrÉ›θeɪn/;^[1] often abbreviated PUR and PU) is a class of polymers composed of organic units joined by carbamate (urethane) links. In contrast to other common polymers such as polyethylene and polystyrene, polyurethane does not refer to a single type of polymer but a group of polymers. Unlike polyethylene and polystyrene, polyurethanes can be produced from a wide range of starting materials, resulting in various polymers within the same group. This chemical variety produces polyurethanes with different chemical structures leading to many different applications. These include rigid and flexible foams, and coatings, adhesives, electrical potting compounds, and fibers such as spandex and polyurethane laminate (PUL). Foams are the largest application accounting for 67% of all polyurethane produced in 2016.^[2]

A polyurethane is typically produced by reacting a polymeric isocyanate with a polyol.^[3] Since a polyurethane contains two types of monomers, which polymerize one after the other, they are classed as alternating copolymers. Both the isocyanates and polyols used to make a polyurethane contain two or more functional groups per molecule.

Global production in 2019 was 25 million metric tonnes,^[4] accounting for about 6% of all polymers produced in that year.

Otto Bayer and his coworkers at IG Farben in Leverkusen, Germany, first made polyurethanes in 1937.^[5][6] The new polymers had some advantages over existing plastics that were made by polymerizing olefins or by polycondensation, and were not covered by patents obtained by Wallace Carothers on polyesters.^[7] Early work focused on the production of fibers and flexible foams and PUs were applied on a limited scale as aircraft coating during World War II.^[7] Polyisocyanates became commercially available in 1952, and production of flexible polyurethane foam began in 1954 by combining toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and polyester polyols. These materials were also used to produce rigid foams, gum rubber, and elastomers. Linear fibers were produced from hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) and 1,4-Butanediol (BDO).

DuPont introduced polyethers, specifically poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol, in 1956. BASF and Dow Chemical introduced polyalkylene glycols in 1957. Polyether polyols were cheaper, easier to handle and more water-resistant than polyester polyols. Union Carbide and Mobay, a U.S. Monsanto/Bayer joint venture, also began making polyurethane chemicals.^[7] In 1960 more than 45,000 metric tons of flexible polyurethane foams were produced. The availability of chlorofluoroalkane blowing agents, inexpensive polyether polyols, and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) allowed polyurethane rigid foams to be used as high-performance insulation materials. In 1967, urethane-modified polyisocyanurate rigid foams were introduced, offering even better thermal stability and flammability resistance. During the 1960s, automotive interior safety components, such as instrument and door panels, were produced by back-filling thermoplastic skins with semi-rigid foam.

In 1969, Bayer exhibited an all-plastic car in Düsseldorf, Germany. Parts of this car, such as the fascia and body panels, were manufactured using a new process called reaction injection molding (RIM), in which the reactants were mixed and then injected into a mold. The addition of fillers, such as milled glass, mica, and processed mineral fibers, gave rise to reinforced RIM (RRIM), which provided improvements in flexural modulus (stiffness), reduction in coefficient of thermal expansion and better thermal stability. This technology was used to make the first plastic-body automobile in the United States, the Pontiac Fiero, in 1983. Further increases in stiffness were obtained by incorporating pre-placed glass mats into the RIM mold cavity, also known broadly as resin injection molding, or structural RIM.

Starting in the early 1980s, water-blown microcellular flexible foams were used to mold gaskets for automotive panels and air-filter seals, replacing PVC polymers. Polyurethane foams are used in many automotive applications including seating, head and arm rests, and headliners.

Polyurethane foam (including foam rubber) is sometimes made using small amounts of blowing agents to give less dense foam, better cushioning/energy absorption or thermal insulation. In the early 1990s, because of their impact on ozone depletion, the Montreal Protocol restricted the use of many chlorine-containing blowing agents, such as trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11). By the late 1990s, blowing agents such as carbon dioxide, pentane, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) and 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane (HFC-245fa) were widely used in North America and the EU, although chlorinated blowing agents remained in use in many developing countries. Later, HFC-134a was also banned due to high ODP and GWP readings, and HFC-141B was introduced in early 2000s as an alternate blowing agent in developing nations.^[8]

Polyurethanes are produced by reacting diisocyanates with polyols,^{[9][10][11][12][13][14]} often in the presence of a catalyst, or upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation.^[15] Common catalysts include tertiary amines, such as DABCO, DMDEE, or metallic soaps, such as dibutyltin dilaurate. The stoichiometry of the starting materials must be carefully controlled as excess isocyanate can trimerise, leading to the formation of rigid polyisocyanurates. The polymer usually has a highly crosslinked molecular structure, resulting in a thermosetting material which does not melt on heating; although some thermoplastic polyurethanes are also produced.

$\displaystyle \beginarrayl\ce R-N=C=O+H2O->[\ce step\ 1]R1-\underset N-\overset C-O-H->[\ce step\ 2][\ce decomposes]R-NH2\ +\ CO2(g)\\\ce R-N=C=O+R-NH2->[\ce step\ 3]-R-\underset N-\overset \displaystyle O \atop \C-\underset N-R-\endarray$

Carbon dioxide gas and urea links formed by reacting water and isocyanate

The most common application of polyurethane is as solid foams, which requires the presence of a gas, or blowing agent, during the polymerization step. This is commonly achieved by adding small amounts of water, which reacts with isocyanates to form CO₂ gas and an amine, via an unstable carbamic acid group. The amine produced can also react with isocyanates to form urea groups, and as such the polymer will contain both these and urethane linkers. The urea is not very soluble in the reaction mixture and tends to form separate "hard segment" phases consisting mostly of polyurea. The concentration and organization of these polyurea phases can have a significant impact on the properties of the foam.^[16]

The type of foam produced can be controlled by regulating the amount of blowing agent and also by the addition of various surfactants which change the rheology of the polymerising mixture. Foams can be either "closed-cell", where most of the original bubbles or cells remain intact, or "open-cell", where the bubbles have broken but the edges of the bubbles are stiff enough to retain their shape, in extreme cases reticulated foams can be formed. Open-cell foams feel soft and allow air to flow through, so they are comfortable when used in seat cushions or mattresses. Closed-cell foams are used as rigid thermal insulation. High-density microcellular foams can be formed without the addition of blowing agents by mechanically frothing the polyol prior to use. These are tough elastomeric materials used in covering car steering wheels or shoe soles.

The properties of a polyurethane are greatly influenced by the types of isocyanates and polyols used to make it. Long, flexible segments, contributed by the polyol, give soft, elastic polymer. High amounts of crosslinking give tough or rigid polymers. Long chains and low crosslinking give a polymer that is very stretchy, short chains with many crosslinks produce a hard polymer while long chains and intermediate crosslinking give a polymer useful for making foam. The choices available for the isocyanates and polyols, in addition to other additives and processing conditions allow polyurethanes to have the very wide range of properties that make them such widely used polymers.

The main ingredients to make a polyurethane are di- and tri-isocyanates and polyols. Other materials are added to aid processing the polymer or to modify the properties of the polymer. PU foam formulation sometimes have water added too.

Isocyanates used to make polyurethane have two or more isocyanate groups on each molecule. The most commonly used isocyanates are the aromatic diisocyanates, toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, (MDI). These aromatic isocyanates are more reactive than aliphatic isocyanates.

TDI and MDI are generally less expensive and more reactive than other isocyanates. Industrial grade TDI and MDI are mixtures of isomers and MDI often contains polymeric materials. They are used to make flexible foam (for example slabstock foam for mattresses or molded foams for car seats),^[17] rigid foam (for example insulating foam in refrigerators) elastomers (shoe soles, for example), and so on. The isocyanates may be modified by partially reacting them with polyols or introducing some other materials to reduce volatility (and hence toxicity) of the isocyanates, decrease their freezing points to make handling easier or to improve the properties of the final polymers.

Aliphatic and cycloaliphatic isocyanates are used in smaller quantities, most often in coatings and other applications where color and transparency are important since polyurethanes made with aromatic isocyanates tend to darken on exposure to light.^{[page needed][18]} The most important aliphatic and cycloaliphatic isocyanates are 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), 1-isocyanato-3-isocyanatomethyl-3,5,5-trimethyl-cyclohexane (isophorone diisocyanate, IPDI), and 4,4′-diisocyanato dicyclohexylmethane (H₁₂MDI or hydrogenated MDI). Other more specialized isocyanates include Tetramethylxylylene diisocyanate (TMXDI).

Polyols are polymers in their own right and have on average two or more hydroxyl groups per molecule. They can be converted to polyether polyols by co-polymerizing ethylene oxide and propylene oxide with a suitable polyol precursor.^[19] Polyester polyols are made by the polycondensation of multifunctional carboxylic acids and polyhydroxyl compounds. They can be further classified according to their end use. Higher molecular weight polyols (molecular weights from 2,000 to 10,000) are used to make more flexible polyurethanes while lower molecular weight polyols make more rigid products.

Polyols for flexible applications use low functionality initiators such as dipropylene glycol (f = 2), glycerine (f = 3), or a sorbitol/water solution (f = 2.75).^[20] Polyols for rigid applications use higher functionality initiators such as sucrose (f = 8), sorbitol (f = 6), toluenediamine (f = 4), and Mannich bases (f = 4). Propylene oxide and/or ethylene oxide is added to the initiators until the desired molecular weight is achieved. The order of addition and the amounts of each oxide affect many polyol properties, such as compatibility, water-solubility, and reactivity. Polyols made with only propylene oxide are terminated with secondary hydroxyl groups and are less reactive than polyols capped with ethylene oxide, which contain primary hydroxyl groups. Incorporating carbon dioxide into the polyol structure is being researched by multiple companies.

Graft polyols (also called filled polyols or polymer polyols) contain finely dispersed styrene–acrylonitrile, acrylonitrile, or polyurea (PHD) polymer solids chemically grafted to a high molecular weight polyether backbone. They are used to increase the load-bearing properties of low-density high-resiliency (HR) foam, as well as add toughness to microcellular foams and cast elastomers. Initiators such as ethylenediamine and triethanolamine are used to make low molecular weight rigid foam polyols that have built-in catalytic activity due to the presence of nitrogen atoms in the backbone. A special class of polyether polyols, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycols, which are made by polymerizing tetrahydrofuran, are used in high performance coating, wetting and elastomer applications.

Conventional polyester polyols are based on virgin raw materials and are manufactured by the direct polyesterification of high-purity diacids and glycols, such as adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol. Polyester polyols are usually more expensive and more viscous than polyether polyols, but they make polyurethanes with better solvent, abrasion, and cut resistance. Other polyester polyols are based on reclaimed raw materials. They are manufactured by transesterification (glycolysis) of recycled poly(ethyleneterephthalate) (PET) or dimethylterephthalate (DMT) distillation bottoms with glycols such as diethylene glycol. These low molecular weight, aromatic polyester polyols are used in rigid foam, and bring low cost and excellent flammability characteristics to polyisocyanurate (PIR) boardstock and polyurethane spray foam insulation.

Specialty polyols include polycarbonate polyols, polycaprolactone polyols, polybutadiene polyols, and polysulfide polyols. The materials are used in elastomer, sealant, and adhesive applications that require superior weatherability, and resistance to chemical and environmental attack. Natural oil polyols derived from castor oil and other vegetable oils are used to make elastomers, flexible bunstock, and flexible molded foam.

Co-polymerizing chlorotrifluoroethylene or tetrafluoroethylene with vinyl ethers containing hydroxyalkyl vinyl ether produces fluorinated (FEVE) polyols. Two-component fluorinated polyurethanes prepared by reacting FEVE fluorinated polyols with polyisocyanate have been used to make ambient cure paints and coatings. Since fluorinated polyurethanes contain a high percentage of fluorine–carbon bonds, which are the strongest bonds among all chemical bonds, fluorinated polyurethanes exhibit resistance to UV, acids, alkali, salts, chemicals, solvents, weathering, corrosion, fungi and microbial attack. These have been used for high performance coatings and paints.^[21]

Phosphorus-containing polyols are available that become chemically bonded to the polyurethane matrix for the use as flame retardants. This covalent linkage prevents migration and leaching of the organophosphorus compound.

Interest in sustainable "green" products raised interest in polyols derived from vegetable oils,^[22][23][24] fatty acids,^[25] lignin, sorbitol,^[26] etc. These are mostly contributing to polyol part. There are attempts made to prepare isocyanate part using bio-derived material. However, as far as commercialization is concern, polyol part is more targeted being easy and required in more quantity than isocyanate part. Various oils used in the preparation polyols for polyurethanes include soybean oil, cottonseed oil, neem seed oil, algae oil,^[27][28] and castor oil. Vegetable oils are functionalized in various ways and modified to polyetheramides, polyethers, alkyds, etc. Renewable sources used to prepare polyols may be fatty acids or dimer fatty acids.^[29] Some biobased and isocyanate-free polyurethanes exploit the reaction between polyamines and cyclic carbonates to produce polyhydroxyurethanes.^[30]

Chain extenders (f = 2) and cross linkers (f ≥ 3) are low molecular weight hydroxyl and amine terminated compounds that play an important role in the polymer morphology of polyurethane fibers, elastomers, adhesives, and certain integral skin and microcellular foams.

The elastomeric properties of these materials are derived from the phase separation of the hard and soft copolymer segments of the polymer, such that the urethane hard segment domains serve as cross-links between the amorphous polyether (or polyester) soft segment domains. This phase separation occurs because the mainly nonpolar, low melting soft segments are incompatible with the polar, high melting hard segments. The soft segments, which are formed from high molecular weight polyols, are mobile and are normally present in coiled formation, while the hard segments, which are formed from the isocyanate and chain extenders, are stiff and immobile. As the hard segments are covalently coupled to the soft segments, they inhibit plastic flow of the polymer chains, thus creating elastomeric resiliency. Upon mechanical deformation, a portion of the soft segments are stressed by uncoiling, and the hard segments become aligned in the stress direction. This reorientation of the hard segments and consequent powerful hydrogen bonding contributes to high tensile strength, elongation, and tear resistance values.^{[12][31][32][33][34]} The choice of chain extender also determines flexural, heat, and chemical resistance properties.

The most important chain extenders are ethylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BDO or BDO), 1,6-hexanediol, cyclohexane dimethanol and hydroquinone bis(2-hydroxyethyl) ether (HQEE). All of these glycols form polyurethanes that phase separate well and form well defined hard segment domains, and are melt processable. They are all suitable for thermoplastic polyurethanes with the exception of ethylene glycol, since its derived bis-phenyl urethane undergoes unfavorable degradation at high hard segment levels.^[10] Diethanolamine and triethanolamine are used in flex molded foams to build firmness and add catalytic activity. Diethyltoluenediamine is used extensively in RIM, and in polyurethane and polyurea elastomer formulations.