EDUC 1300

Lumen Learning

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1

About the Course

Success doesn’t come to you…you go to it.

This quote by Dr. Marva Collins sets the stage for the journey you are about to take. Your success, however you choose to define it, is waiting for you, and this text is your guide to your success. Some may believe that success looks like a straight and narrow line that connects the dots between where you are and where you are going, but the truth is that success looks more like a hot mess of twists and turns, curves and bumps, and hurdles and alternate pathways.

In the text, the authors tell stories about their own academic, personal, and life-career successes. While reading, consider the following guiding questions:

How do you demonstrate college readiness through the use of effective study skills and campus resources?

How do you apply basic technological and information management skills for academic and lifelong career development?

How do you demonstrate the use of critical and creative thinking skills to solve problems and draw conclusions?

How do you demonstrate basic awareness of self in connection with academic and personal goals?

How do you identify and demonstrate knowledge of the implications of choices related to wellness?

How do you demonstrate basic knowledge of cultural diversity?

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Adaptation of Preface. Authored by: Dr. Thomas C. Priester. Provided by: SUNY Genesee Community College. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. Project: Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

1

Introduction to College Success

1

Introduction to College Success

Destiny is not a matter of chance; it is a matter of choice. It is not a thing to be waited for, it is a thing to be achieved. ―William Jennings Bryan, politician and orator

Your College, Your Success[1][2]

Welcome to this course on succeeding in college! You are here as a result of many life decisions and fortunate circumstances that bode well for your future. You are in good company, too. Consider the following:

An estimated 20.2 million students attended American colleges and universities in fall 2015.

This year, colleges and universities are expected to award 952,000 associate’s degrees, 1.8 million bachelor’s degrees, 802,000 master’s degrees, and 179,000 doctor’s degrees.

A college education has more return on investment for a graduate in the United States than in any other nation.

How will you maximize your time in college for best advantage? Your first year in college will be especially important. For many students, the first year is the most challenging because of major changes: new people in your life, new independence, new responsibilities, new subjects to study, and new disciplines to embrace. Your greatest new challenge may be balancing school, your family, and a job.

To help you navigate these changes and establish firm footing, you are offered this college-success learning experience. It will guide you in building upon your current talents, skills, and interests in order to gain new ones, including the following:

Shaping your new college identity

Managing your time wisely

Moving into a fulfilling and viable career

Interacting with others

Thinking and learning deeply

Studying effectively

Maintaining your health

Managing your finances

In this course, you’re invited to explore all of the habits of highly successful students, including the following, which comprise discrete topics in the course:

Be open to learning about yourself. Be open to meeting others. Develop images of success. Define your goals. Use your time wisely. Explore career options. Find a major that fits. Build professional skills. Network. Socialize. Appreciate diversity. Relish student life. Examine your thinking. Think critically. Think creatively. Use technology. Prepare for class. Attend class. Build memory skills. Engage actively. Read abundantly. Write often. Learn test-taking skills. Interact with instructors. Learn deeply. Have high academic ethics. Be honest. Evaluate results. Eat nutritiously. Respect the body. Exercise. Sleep well. Avoid substance abuse. Avoid stress. Support mental health. Support sexual health. Be safe. Learn about finances. Explore employment. Save money. Create a budget. Use credit prudently. Explore financial aid, if needed.

In working through these topics, you will have opportunities to take self-assessments and conduct other activities that help you think about and apply the concepts you are learning. Many of the topics include videos and other media materials that provide a context for the information. Topics also include a self-check quiz with simple questions to help you review the content.

As you build new skills and integrate them into your daily life in college, you will be rewarded with success all the more. “Success doesn’t come to you . . . you go to it,” says Dr. Marva Collins, an American educator and civil rights activist. With these words she sets the stage for your college journey. Your success, however you define it, is ever flowing.[3]

Enjoy this course on achieving success in college. Above all, stay motivated and celebrate your every accomplishment!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hzBCI13rJmA

“One of the BEST Motivational Videos I’ve ever seen!” transcript

Dismissed from drama school with a note that read, “Wasting your time. She’s too shy to put her best foot forward.” Lucille Ball. Turned down by the Decker recording company who said, “We don’t like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out.” The Beatles. A failed soldier, farmer, and real estate agent, 38 years old, he went to work for his father as a handyman. Ulysses S. Grant. Cut from the high school basketball team, he went home, locked himself in his room, and cried. Michael Jordan. A teacher told him he was too stupid to learn anything and he should go into a field where he might succeed by virtue of his pleasant personality. Thomas Edison. Fired from a newspaper because he lacked imagination and had no original ideas. Walt Disney. His fiancé died, he failed in business twice, he had a nervous breakdown, and he was defeated in eight elections. Abraham Lincoln. If you’ve never failed, you’ve never lived. Life equals risk.

"Degrees Conferred by Postsecondary Institutions, by Level of Degree and Sex of Student: Selected Years, 1869-70 through 2024-25." Degrees Conferred by Postsecondary Institutions, by Level of Degree and Sex of Student: Selected Years, 1869-70 through 2024-25. National Center for Education Statistics. Web. 16 Mar. 2016.

"Enhancing First Year: The First Year Experience." UCD Teaching & Learning. UCD Dublin. Web. 16 Mar. 2016.

"Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom | Open SUNY Textbooks."Open SUNY Textbooks. Web. 16 Mar. 2016.

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Introduction to College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: http://lumenlearning.com/. License: CC BY: Attribution

College Success Word Cloud. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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One of the BEST Motivational Videos I've ever seen!. Authored by: wecell4you. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hzBCI13rJmA. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

2

Motivating Success

2

Personal Identity

Man’s main task in life is to give birth to himself, to become what he potentially is. The most important product of his effort is his own personality. —Erich Fromm, psychologist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify personal values and align them with educational goals

Use personality tests and/or skills inventories to evaluate career paths that match your values and interests

Describe the responsibilities of college student life and how they differ from high school or early career life

Assessing Your Values

The journey of achieving success in college begins with a single step: identifying your personal values. Your personal values are your core beliefs and guiding principles. They shape the roles you play in daily life. They color your interests and passions, and frame your thoughts and words. In essence, your values are a compass that help you make decisions and choices.

What are your values, then? Which are most important to you, and which are least important? How do your values fit into your educational goals? How do your educational goals relate to your future career?

To help you answer these questions, you can use a “self-assessment” survey. These surveys can help you evaluate your personal identity—your thoughts, actions, attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors—in relationship to the task at hand, like going to college and preparing for a career.

Many different self-assessment surveys are available from college career centers and online sites. Some are designed as personality tests, like the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, or as inventories, like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MTBI®), the most widely used personality inventory in history. You may also come across instruments designed as scales, or measures, games, surveys, and more. These descriptors are often interchangeably used, although most often they refer to questionnaires. The distinctions are not as important as whether or not the instrument meets your self-assessment needs.

In the following activity, you will sample several self-assessment surveys to gain insights about your personal identity, values, educational goals, and career goals. By better understanding the interconnections, you are in a better position to make solid college and career choices.

Activity: Assess Your Personal Identity and Values

Objectives

Examine several surveys that help you self-assess personal identity, values, and interests.

Explore educational goals and/or career paths that match your personal identity, values, and interests, using a self-assessment survey.

Analyze survey results and draw personal conclusions in the context of your educational goals.

Directions

Spend a few moments thinking about questions or feelings you may have about your personal identity, your values, and your educational goals.

Review the self-assessment survey instruments listed below, and select one that represents your interests in examining your values.

Complete the survey you’ve selected, maintaining an objective, honest, and open stance. Listen to your inner voice and to what is uniquely important to you.

When you complete the survey, reflect on the parallels you see between educational goals and career goals.

Write a few paragraphs about what you discover. What surprises you the most? What excites you the most? Are your educational goals in sync with your personal identity and values?

| INSTRUMENT | DESCRIPTION
1 | ISEEK Career Cluster Interest Survey ISEEK Careers / Minnesota Colleges and Universities | This online survey lets you rate activities you enjoy, your personal qualities, and school subjects you like. Then you can see which career clusters are a match for your interests.
2 | Life Values Assessment Career Test for the Soul | This online survey provides a master list of twenty typical life values, which you arrange in order of importance. You may add values of your own definition. You interpret your results based on provided reflection questions.
3 | Values Clarification Questionnaire InSite / Electric Eggplant | This online survey, in two parts, looks at the specific values of ambition, appearance, family, friendship, independence, wealth, education, freedom, happiness, privacy, security, honesty. A scorecard and interpretation are generated.
4 | Career Interest Survey CheckOutACollege.com / Community and Technical Colleges of Washington State | This online survey allows you to select activities you like to do, personality traits that describe you, and subjects that interest you. Auto results suggest one or more of sixteen career clusters that match your selections.

Stages of Life

Keep in mind that your personal values and interests can and do change as you get older. This is evidenced in research conducted by a number of contemporary social scientists, like Erik Erikson and Daniel Levinson. Their studies show how our values affect our choices and how our choices can characterize the stage of life we’re in.

For example, college students, ages 18–26, tend to make choices that are tentative (more short-range) and support a desire for autonomy. Later, during ages 27–31, young adults may rethink decisions and lean toward more permanent choices. In ages 32–42, adults tend to have a greater sense of commitment and stability, as shown by their choices. In essence, our personal identity and values change over time, but they continue to affect our choices and can illuminate the stage of life we’re in [1].

Keeping in mind that there are many phases of life, you can expect to see changes in your values and choices as you get older. You may experience a significant change in perspective while you are in college! To better understand your relationship with your values, you can continually reassess what is important to you. Make a commitment to examining your thinking, actions, and choices, and keep taking self-assessment tests. This will put you in a stronger position to manage changes in your educational goals, your career, living situation, hobbies, friends, and other aspects of your life. Changes are part of normal life transitions.

Student Responsibilities

Now that you have transitioned into college, you will have new responsibilities. Research has shown that students who get involved in career-planning activities stay in college longer, graduate on time, improve their academic performance, tend to be more goal focused and motivated, and have a more satisfying and fulfilling college experience. This is why an important first step in college is examining your personal identity and values. By examining your values first, you begin the process of defining your educational goals and ultimately planning your career.

Secondary to the critical nature of assessing your values is the importance of committing to your responsibilities as a student. What are your new student responsibilities? Are they financial? Course specific? Social? Health related? Ethical? What exactly is expected of you?

Expectations for student behavior vary from campus to campus. A Web search for “college student responsibilities” reveals the breadth of expectations deemed important at any given institution.

Broadly, though, students are expected to at least act consistently with the values of the institution and to obey local, state, and federal laws. It may also be expected that you actively participate in your career decision-making process, respond to advising, and plan to graduate.

Institutions invariably provide additional details about student responsibilities. Details may be formal or informal. They may fall under academic expectations or a code of conduct. They may also include resources and recommendations. The University of South Carolina site “What Every Student Needs to Know,” for example, outlines a formula of responsibilities for student success.

Consult your college handbook or Web site for details about your rights and responsibilities as a student. Overall, you demonstrate that you are a responsible student when you do the following:

Uphold the values of honesty and academic integrity.

Arrive on time and prepared for all classes, meetings, academic activities, and special events.

Give attention to quality and excellence in completing assignments.

Allot sufficient time to fulfill responsibilities outside of class.

Observe etiquette in all communications, giving respect to instructors, fellow students, staff and the larger college community.

Take full advantage of college resources available to you.

Respect diversity in people, ideas, and opinions.

Achieve educational goals in an organized, committed, and proactive manner.

Take full responsibility for personal behavior.

Comply with all college policies.

By allowing these overarching principles to guide you, you embrace responsibility and make choices that lead to college success.

College vs. High School

If you know others who attend or have attended college, then you have a head start on knowing what to expect during this odyssey. Still, the transition from high school to college is striking. College life differs in many ways. The following video clip is a brief, informal student discussion about the challenges you may face as a student and provides examples of issues students face in transitioning from high school to college. Click on the “cc” box underneath the video to activate the closed captioning.

https://youtu.be/dBVBIUxS1Os

The two main problems identified in the video are time management and working in groups. Multiple strategies and solutions are shared by the students.

For more information about high school vs. college, refer to this detailed set of comparisons from Southern Methodist University: “How Is College Different from High School.” The site provides an extensive list of contrasts, such as the following:

Following the rules in high school vs. choosing responsibly in college

Going to high school classes vs. succeeding in college classes

Understanding high school teachers vs. college professors

Preparing for tests in high school vs. tests in college

Interpreting grades in high school vs. grades in college

The site also provides recommendations for successfully transitioning from high school to college.

Weiler, Nicholas W., and Stephen C. Schoonover. Your Soul at Work: Five Steps to a More Fulfilling Career and Life. New York: HiddenSpring, 2001. Print.

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College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: http://lumenlearning.com/. License: CC BY: Attribution

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3

Types of Students

A journey of a thousand steps begins with a single step. —Lao Tzu, philosopher

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify different categories of students who might share the same classroom as you

Identify similarities and differences among different types of students compared to yourself

Describe characteristics of successful students

Who Are You As a Student?

Imagine for a moment that you live in the ancient city of Athens, Greece. You are a student at Plato’s University of Athens, considered in modern times to be the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. The campus sits just outside Athens’s city walls, a mile from your home. You walk to class and take your seat in the gymnasium, where all classes are held. Gatherings are small, just a handful of fellow students, most of whom are males born and raised in Athens. When your class is finished, you walk back to the city. Your daily work awaits you—hurry.

Now return to the present time. How does your college environment compare to the university in ancient Athens? Where do you live now, relative to campus? Do you report to a job site before or after class? Who are your fellow students, and where do they live in relationship to you and campus? What city or country are they from?

If you indulge these imaginative comparisons, you may find many similarities in the past and the present. You may find many differences, too. Perhaps the most striking difference will be the makeup of each student body. Consider the following facts:

In fall 2015, 20.2 million students attended American colleges and universities. That was almost 5 million more students than enrolled in fall 2000.

Of the 20.2 million U.S. college students, about 17.3 million are undergraduates; about 3.0 million are in graduate programs.[1]

Almost half of all undergraduates (46 percent) are community college students.[2]

During the 2015–16 school year, colleges and universities are expected to award 952,000 associate’s degrees, 1.8 million bachelor’s degrees, 802,000 master’s degrees and 179,000 doctor’s degrees.[3]

Females are expected to account for the majority of college students: about 11.5 million females attend in fall 2015, compared with 8.7 million males.

More students attend full time than part time (an estimated 12.6 million, compared with about 7.6 million)[4]

Nearly 4 out of 5 college students work part-time while studying for their degrees, averaging 19 hours a week.[5]

International students now make up about 4 percent of all university students in the U.S., which hosts more of the world’s 4.5 million international students than any other country.[6]

These brief statistics point to the scope of university life in America and the diversity of the student body. Clearly there is no “one size fits all” description of a college student. However, each student bears a responsibility to understand the diverse terrain of his or her peers. Who are the students you may share class with? How have they come to share the college experience with you?

In this section, we look at several main categories of students and at some of the needs of students in those categories. We also take a brief look at how all students, regardless of background, can make a plan to be successful in college.

Categories of Students

You may take classes with students from many walks of life. Which of these categories best describes you?

Traditional Students

Traditional undergraduate students typically enroll in college immediately after graduating from high school, and they attend classes on a continuous full-time basis at least during the fall and spring semesters (or fall, winter, and spring quarters). They complete a bachelor’s degree program in four or five years by the age of twenty-two or twenty-three. Traditional students are also typically financially dependent on others (such as their parents), do not have children, and consider their college career to be their primary responsibility. They may be employed only on a part-time basis, if at all, during the academic year.

Nontraditional Students

Nontraditional students do not enter college in the same calendar year that they finish high school. They typically attend classes part-time due to full-time work obligations. They are more likely to be financially independent, to have children, and/or to be caregivers of sick or elderly family members. Some nontraditional students may not have a high school diploma, or they may have received a general educational development degree (GED).

The following video features several nontraditional students from the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. Students discuss their status as nontraditional students and how they feel about it. Note that the differences are not just with age but also experience. Click on the “cc” box underneath the video to activate the closed captioning.

https://youtu.be/YMAMaOcRu1M

International Students and/or Nonnative Speakers of English

International students are those who travel to a country different from their own for the purpose of studying in college. English is likely their second language. Nonnative speakers of English, like international students, come from a different culture, too. For both of these groups, college may pose special challenges. For example, classes may at first, or for a time, pose hardships due to cultural and language barriers.

First-Generation College Students

First-generation students do not have a parent who graduated from college with a baccalaureate degree. College life may be less familiar to them, and the preparation for entering college may not have been stressed as a priority at home. Some time and support may be needed to become accustomed to the college environment. These students may experience a culture shift between school life and home life.

Students with Disabilities

Students with disabilities include those who have attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders, blindness or low vision, brain injuries, deafness/hard-of-hearing, learning disabilities, medical disabilities, physical disabilities, psychiatric disabilities, and speech and language disabilities. Students with disabilities are legally accorded reasonable accommodations that give them an equal opportunity to attain the same level of performance as students without a disability. Even with these accommodations, however, physical and electronic campus facilities and practices can pose special challenges. Time, energy, and added resources may be needed.

Working Students

Many students are employed in either a part-time or full-time capacity. Balancing college life with work life may be a challenge. Time management skills and good organization can help. These students typically have two jobs—being a student and an employee. It can be a lot to balance.

Commuter Students

While there are many advantages to living on campus, many students choose to live off campus and commute to class. This may be convenient or necessary for students who have a full set of responsibilities in off-campus jobs. It may also suit students who have the option to live at home with parents to avoid room and board fees. Many returning students are commuter students, too, and may come on campus only for classes. At some colleges, like urban and rural schools, commuting to campus may be the only option.

Activity: Student Similarities and Differences

Objective

Identify similarities and differences among different types of students compared to yourself

Directions

Think about your favorite class this term and about your fellow students in that class. Make a list of all the similarities with them that you sense, feel, or notice.

Then make a list of all the differences between you that you sense, feel, or notice.

What do these similarities and differences mean to you?

Characteristics of Successful Students

Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

"Fast Facts." National Center for Educational Statistics. Institute of Education Sciences, n.d. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"Fast Facts from Our Fact Sheet." American Association of Community Colleges. 2016. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"Table 318.10." National Center for Educational Statistics. Institute of Education Sciences, n.d. Web. 16 Feb. 2016.

"Table 105.20." National Center for Educational Statistics. Institute of Education Sciences, n.d. Web. 16 Feb. 2016.

Kingkade, Tyler. "Most College Students Work Part-Time Jobs, But Few Pay Their Way Through School: Poll." Huffpost Business. Huffington Post, 7 Aug 2013. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"Open Doors." Institute of International Education. 2016. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

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Ten Must-Know Tips for College Academic Success. Authored by: Daniel Z. Kane. Provided by: imarketingbiz.net. Located at: http://imarketingbiz.net/ten-must-know-tips-for-college-academic-success/. License: CC BY: Attribution

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4

College Overview

One’s philosophy is not best expressed in words; it is expressed in the choices one makes . . . and the choices we make are ultimately our responsibility. –Eleanor Roosevelt, politician and activist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify differences in class delivery and compare strategies for success in each type

Identify differences in types of classes within your degree plan, such as electives and core requirements

Explain how to access individual course policies and college-wide policies

Identify major college resources and how to use them when needed

Course Delivery Formats

Choices. And more choices. If college success is about anything, it’s about the choices you need to make in order to succeed. What do you want to learn? How do you want to learn it? Who do you want to learn it with and where? When do you learn best?

As part of the many choices you will make in college, you will often be able to select the format in which your college classes are offered. The list below illustrates some of the main formats you may choose. Some formats lend themselves more readily to certain subjects. Others are based on how instructors believe the content can most effectively be delivered. Knowing a bit about your options can help you select your best environments for learning.

Lecture

Lecture-style courses are likely the most common course format, at least historically. In lecture courses, the professor’s main goal is to share a large amount of information, ideas, principles, and/or resources. Lecture-style courses often include discussions and other interaction with your fellow students.

Tip: Students can best succeed in this environment with dedicated study habits, time-management skills, note-taking skills, reading skills, and active-listening skills. If you have questions, be sure to ask them during class. Meet with your instructor during office hours to get help on what you don’t understand, and ensure that you’re prepared for exams or other graded projects.

Laboratory

Lab courses take place in a controlled environment with specialized equipment, typically in a special facility. Students participating in labs can expect to engage fully with the material—to learn by doing. In a lab you get first-hand experience in developing, practicing, translating, testing, and applying principles.

Tip: To best succeed as a student in a lab course, be sure to find out in advance what the course goals are, and make sure they fit with your needs as a student. Expect to practice and master precise technical skills, like using a microscope or measuring a chemical reaction. Be comfortable with working as part of a team of fellow students. Enjoy the personal touches that are inherent in lab-format courses.

Seminar

Seminar-style courses are geared toward a small group of students who have achieved an advanced level of knowledge or skill in a certain area or subject. In a seminar, you will likely do a good deal of reading, writing, and discussing. You might also conduct original research. You will invariably explore a topic in great depth. The course may involve a final project such as a presentation, term paper, or demonstration.

Tip: To best succeed in a seminar-style course, you must be prepared to participate actively, which includes listening actively. You will need to be well prepared, too. As a seminar class size is ordinarily small, it will be important to feel comfortable in relating to fellow students; mutual respect is key. Initiative and responsiveness are also vital.

Studio

Studio-style courses, similar to seminars, are also very active, but emphasis is placed mainly on developing concrete skills, such as fine arts or theater arts. Studio courses generally require you to use specific materials, instruments, equipment, and/or tools. Your course may culminate in a public display or performance.

Tip: To succeed in a studio-style course, you need good time-management skills, because you will likely put in more time than in a standard class. Coming to class is critical, as is being well prepared. You can expect your instructors to help you start on projects and to provide you with resources, but much of your work will be self-paced. Your fellow students will be additional learning resources.

Workshop

Workshop-style courses are generally short in length but intensive in scope and interaction. Workshops generally have a lower student-to-teacher ratio than other courses. Often the goal of a workshop is the acquisition of information and/or skills that you can immediately apply.

Tip: To succeed as a learner in a workshop, you will need to apply yourself and participate fully for a limited time. A workshop may last a shorter amount of time than a full term.

Independent Study

Independent-study courses may be less common than other course formats. They allow you to pursue special interests not met in your formal curriculum and often involve working closely with a particular faculty person or adviser. Independent studies usually involve significant reading and writing and often end in a research project or paper. Your special, perhaps unique area of interest will be studied thoroughly.

Tip: To succeed in an independent-study course, be prepared to work independently but cooperatively with an adviser or faculty member. Adopt high standards for your work, as you can plan for the possibility that your project or culminating research will be of interest to a prospective employer. Assume full responsibility for your learning outcomes, and be sure to pick a topic that deeply interests you.

Study Abroad

Study-abroad courses and programs give students opportunities to learn certain subjects in a country other than their own. For most U.S. students, a typical time frame for studying abroad is one or two academic terms. For many students, study-abroad experiences are life changing.

Tip: To succeed in studying abroad, it may be most important to communicate openly before, during, and after your experience. Learn as much about the culture in advance as possible. Keep up with studies, but take advantage of opportunities to socialize. Use social networking to connect with others who have traveled where you plan to go.

The following video is one student’s account of why and how traveling abroad changed his life. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/qpTUjHTiQv8

Technology-Enhanced Formats

Most, if not all, college course formats can be delivered with technology enhancements. For example, lecture-style courses are often delivered fully online, and lab courses often have Web enhancements. Online teaching and learning is commonplace at most colleges and universities. In fact, the most recent data (2012) about the number of students taking online courses shows that roughly one out of every three U.S. college students takes at least one online course.

Technology-enhanced delivery methods may be synchronous (meaning in real time, through some kind of live-interaction tool) as well as asynchronous (meaning in delayed time; they may include online discussion boards that students visit at different times within a certain time frame).

The following table describes the attributes of four main “modes” of delivery relative to the technology enhancements involved.

CONTENT DELIVERED ONLINE | FORMAT | DESCRIPTION

0%
Face-to-Face / Traditional
A face-to-face course is delivered fully on-site with real-time, face-to-face interaction between the instructor and student. A face-to-face course may make use of computers, the Internet, or other electronic media in the classroom, but it does not use the institution’s learning management system for instruction. A learning management system, like Blackboard, Moodle, Canvas, or others, is an online teaching and learning environment that allows students and teachers to engage with one another and with course content.

1% to 29% | Web Enhanced | A Web-enhanced course takes place primarily in a traditional, face-to-face classroom, with some course materials being accessible online (generally in the learning management system), like digital readings to support learning objectives. All Web-enhanced classes regularly meet face-to-face.

30% to 79%
Hybrid/ Blended
Hybrid courses (also called blended courses) strategically blend online and face-to-face delivery. “Flipped classrooms” are an example of hybrid delivery. In a flipped classroom, your instructor reverses the traditional order of in-class and out-of-class activity, such that you may be asked to view lectures at home before coming to class. You may then be asked to use class time for activities that enable you to engage dynamically with your instructor and fellow students. Blended courses have fewer in-person sessions than face-to-face or Web-enhanced courses.

80+% | Online | An online course is delivered almost entirely through the institution’s learning management system or other online means, such as synchronous conferencing. Generally, very few or no on-site face-to-face class meetings are required.

Activity: Is Technology-Enhanced Learning For Me?

Objectives

Identify key components of technology-enhanced learning as presented in the Introduction to Online Learning video.

Take a self-assessment quiz to determine what your strengths and aptitudes may be in taking courses with technology enhancements.

Directions

In the section on Technology Skills, we explore online learning and technology-enhanced learning in greater depth. Get a head start on this topic by viewing the following video, Introduction to Online Learning, from California Community Colleges.

When you are finished watching the video, take this Online Learning Quiz from the Washington State Board for Community and Technical Colleges. You will see pop-up interpretations based on your responses.

Types of Classes in Your Degree Plan

Just as you have choices about the delivery format of your courses, you also have choices about where specific courses fit academically into your chosen degree program. For example, you can choose to take various combinations of required courses and elective courses in a given term. Typical college degree programs include both required and elective courses.

A core course is a course required by your institution, and every student must take it in order to obtain a degree. It’s sometimes also called a general education course. Collectively, core courses are part of a core curriculum. Core courses are always essential to an academic degree, but they are not necessarily foundational to your major.

A course required in your major, on the other hand, is essential to your specific field of study. For example, as an accounting student you would probably have to take classes like organizational theory and principles of marketing. Your academic adviser can help you learn which courses within your major are required.

An elective course, in contrast to both core courses and required courses in your major, is a variable component of your curriculum. You choose your electives from a number of optional subjects. Elective courses tend to be more specialized than required courses. They may also have fewer students than required courses.

Most educational programs prefer that students to take a combination of elective and required courses during the same term. This is a good way to meet the demands of your program and take interesting courses outside your focus area at the same time.

Since your required courses will be clearly specified, you may not have many questions about which ones to take or when to take them. But since you get to choose which elective courses you take, some interesting questions may arise.

What are some strategies you can employ to help you decide which electives are right for you? The following video, “Choosing Electives,” gives helpful advice. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/-GxyNKqkajU

It’s important to track and plan your required and elective courses from the outset. Take advantage of a guidance counselor or another adviser to help you make sure you are on the best trajectory to graduation. Reassess your plan as needed.

Course Policies and University Policies

Think of your college campus as a small town—maybe even a little city! In the same way that towns and cities need laws to regulate citizen activities, colleges and universities need codes and policies to define appropriate operations, behaviors, events, activities, and much more.

Common Policies

Each institution has its own unique set of codes and policies, but many commonalities can be found between the codes and policies of different institutions. You can expect to find policy and code specifications about academic standards, admissions, enrollment, tuition and fees, student classifications, degree types, degree requirements, transfer agreements, advising, course scheduling, majors, minors, credits, syllabi, exams, grade-point averages, academic warnings, scholarships, faculty affairs, research, rights and responsibilities, and honors and distinctions.

Here are several sets of policies and rules that you may be interested in looking over:

Public college: Pennsylvania State University Policies and Rules for Undergraduate Students

Private college: American University Policies; Selected Listing of Student-Related Policies

Two-year college: Cuyahoga Community College Policies and Procedures

For-profit college: Capella University

Where to Access Policies

Take time to find the policies and procedures for your institution. You can find them online, in the print version of the college handbook, in the admissions office, through your guidance counselor, and/or in the main office building of your academic program.

Course-Specific Policies

Be aware that your individual instructors will provide you with information about their course-specific policies and procedures. These may include policies about grading, absences, and academic integrity. You will also find expectations for submitting work, for communicating with your teacher, and much more. Course-specific policies can affect your grades on individual assignments as well as your final grade. If you think of your college as a small town as mentioned above, then these policies are your road map.

Major College Resources and How To Use Them

College resources to help you reach your educational and career goals are plentiful on most campuses. Here are several campus resources to know about and find early in your college tenure. You may not need them right away; some you may not need at all. But you will at least find several to be vital. Be familiar with your options. Know where to find the services. Have contact information. Be prepared to visit for help.

Advising

Most colleges and universities assign an academic adviser to each student. The adviser may be associated with your major. There may also be an office or department that provides advising. Call upon your adviser or the advising office if you have an issue with your adviser or you need other help.

Tutoring and Writing Centers

Tutoring and writing centers are established for all students, and seeking help from them is expected and to your advantage. Such services are covered by your tuition dollars, and they can richly enhance performance in any area of your studies. Know where to find these centers and how to schedule appointments.

Other Academic Support Facilities

Your college may also offer academic support in various other forms: for example, computer labs with trained assistants, tutors, mentors, peer advisers, and more. You can research what kinds of special support are available and be ready to take advantage of them.

Library Reference Desk

College libraries are staffed with professionals whose main function is to assist you and the college community in finding needed resources. Don’t hesitate to find the reference desk and get to know the reference librarians. Invariably you will learn about valuable resources—many of them online—that you didn’t know existed. Reference librarians are also educators, and they’re there to help you.

Campus Health Center

In the event that you need any health services whatsoever, the campus health center can be your first destination. Stop into the center and learn about the services offered, the hours of operation, emergency provisions, and routine health services available.

Campus Counseling

Counseling is an essential service that colleges and universities invariably provide. Services can ranges from life-saving care to assistance with minor concerns. Life stressors, such as deaths and divorces in the family, issues with friends, substance abuse, and suicide are just a few of the many issues that college students may experience or witness others struggling with.  Don’t take matters into your own hands. Get help! The counseling center can help you and support you in gaining solid footing during difficult times. Don’t hesitate to take full advantage of the services and help they offer.

Career Services

One of the most important purposes of college is to prepare students for a career. All colleges and universities have a career office that can assist you with many critical aspects of finding a suitable career. It may also help you find a campus job or review options for your major, help you get an internship, draft your résumé, and practice interview skills. Visiting the career office is a must for every student, and it’s worth doing early and often (rather than waiting until you’re about to graduate).

Spiritual Life

Most college campus have interfaith facilities to meet the spiritual-life needs of the entire college community. You may find these facilities to be a refuge in special moments of need or resources for your ongoing involvement. A healthy spiritual life can bring greater balance to your student life.

Additional support centers that students may wish to visit include offices for financial aid, students with disabilities, housing, diversity, student organizations, athletics, continuing education, international students, child care, and many others. Refer to your college Web site or other college directory for information about the many, many services that can be part of your college experience.

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5

Defining Success

Action is the foundational key to all success. —Pablo Picasso, artist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify specific strategies to achieve college success

Explain how grades play a role in shaping success

Describe the value of success, particularly in the first year of college

Develop a personal definition of success, in college and other areas of life

Personal Responsibility for Success

A college education is aligned with greater success in many areas of life. While enrolled in college, most students are closely focused on making it through the next class or passing the next test. It can be easy to lose sight of the overall role that education plays in life. But sometimes it helps to recall what a truly great step forward you are taking!

It’s also important to recognize, though, that some students do not succeed in college and drop out within the first year. Sometimes this is due to financial problems or a personal or family crisis. But most of the time students drop out because they’re having trouble passing their courses.

In this section, we examine the elements of college success. Are there patterns of success you strive for but aren’t yet reaching? Where might you shore up your support? What strategies can you use to achieve success in your college endeavors?

Defining Success in College

Click here to view the Instructional Support presentation from California Community Colleges. It includes an audio overview of success in college.

How do you define college success? The definition really depends on you. You might think that “success” is earning an associate’s degree or attending classes in a four-year college. Maybe success is a bachelor’s or master’s degree or a PhD. Maybe success means receiving a certificate of completion or finishing skill-based training.

You might be thinking of other measures of college success, too—like grades. For instance, you might be unhappy with anything less than an A in a course, although maybe this depends on the difficulty of the subject. As long as you pass with a C, you might be perfectly content. But no matter how you define success personally, you probably wouldn’t think it means earning a D or lower grade in a class.

So, if most students believe that passing a class is the minimum requirement for “success,” and if most students want to be successful in their courses, why aren’t more college students consistently successful in the classroom?

Perhaps some common misconceptions are at play. For example, we often hear students say, “I just can’t do it!” or “I’m not good at math,” or “I guess college isn’t for me . . . ,” or “I’m not smart enough.” But these explanations for success or failure aren’t necessarily accurate. Considerable research into college success reveals that having difficulty in or failing in college courses usually has nothing to do with intellect. More often success depends on how fully a student embraces and masters the following seven strategies:

Learn how to take effective notes in class.

Review the text and your reading notes prior to class.

Participate in class discussion and maybe even join a study group.

Go to office hours and ask your instructor questions.

Give yourself enough time to research, write, and edit your essays in manageable stages.

Take advantage of online or on-campus academic support resources.

Spend sufficient time studying.

So if you feel you are not smart enough for college, ask yourself if you can implement some of these skills. Can you make more time for learning? One approach is to create a regular study schedule and make sure you allot ample time. Most college success experts agree that students should study two hours outside of class for every hour in class. Only break away from your committed schedule if an extreme situation prevents you from sticking to it.

Another strategy to consider implementing is group study. For example, rather than relying just on your own knowledge, notes, and skills, try studying with other students in your difficult classes. Studying in a group gives every group member a chance to ask questions and talk about concepts.

You can also add a tutor to your study group. You will really be able to notice a positive difference. Tutoring is generally free in college, and the strategies and knowledge you gain will be invaluable. Usually tutors have taken the class you are currently enrolled in, and they are trained to get the best out of you.

Overall, students struggle in college not because of natural intellect or smarts, but because of time management, organization, and lack of quality study time. The good news is that there are ways to combat this, specifically by doing things like creating a regular study schedule, studying in groups, and taking advantage of your school’s academic resources, like a tutoring center, instructor office hours, and any available online help.

How Grades Play a Role in Shaping Success

In a recent online discussion at a student-support Web site, a college freshman posted the following concern about how serious he should be about getting good grades:

As a first semester freshman, I really have taken my education seriously. I’ve studied and done my homework nightly and have read all of the assignments. So far, I have all A’s in my classes, including calculus and programming. Now, with a month left to go in the semester, I feel myself slipping a bit on my studies. I blow off readings and homework more to go out at night during the week and I’ve even skipped a few classes to attend major sporting events. I also travel most weekends with a sports team that I joined. Still, I’ve gotten A’s on the exams even with these less extensive study habits, although not as high as before. So, my question really is this. Should I just be content with low A’s and B’s and enjoy myself during college, or should I strive to achieve all A’s?

How would you answer this student’s question, given what what you know and sense about college life? Grades do matter to your success, right? Or . . . do they? The answer depends on who you ask and what your college and career goals are.

To help you answer, take this quick self-assessment about your college goals and beyond. Put a checkmark in the Yes or No column next to items in the “I Want to Be Able to . . .” column.

I Want to Be Able to . . . | YES | NO
Change my major during my college years |  |
Have good relationships with my professors |  |
Be eligible for financial aid |  |
Be eligible for scholarships |  |
Get awards |  |
Be a resident assistant (RA) in my dorm |  |
Get reductions on my car insurance |  |
Prove to my employer that I can work hard |  |
Keep my parents happy |  |
Get a free master’s degree |  |

You may be surprised to learn that each reason on this list directly relates to your grades—even changing your major. For example, colleges typically have a minimum GPA requirement to switch majors. Consider these additional factors:

Undergraduate grades have been shown to have a positive impact on getting full-time employment in your career in a position appropriate to your degree.

Grades also have been shown to have a positive net impact on your occupational status and earnings.

Getting good grades, particularly in the first year of college, is important to your academic success throughout your college years.

Grades are probably the best predictors of your persistence, your ability to graduate, and your prospects for enrolling in graduate school.

You stand to gain immeasurably when you get good grades.

Your Grade-Point Average (GPA)

Grades may not be the be-all and end-all in college life. But to the degree that you believe they can help you achieve your greatest goals, you will pay close attention to them and to your GPA.

Your GPA is a calculated average of the letter grades you earn correlated on a 0 to 4.0 or 5.0 scale. Each semester you receive a GPA based on the grades you earned in all of your classes during that semester. You also maintain a cumulative GPA—an ongoing average of all your semester grades beginning with freshman year.

Many institutions provide students with an online GPA calculator. Use the calculator to keep track of where you stand. Your college may also publish data on the average GPA of your fellow students. Sometimes it’s nice to know where you stand relative to your peers.

Words of Wisdom

It is important to know that college success is a responsibility shared with your institution. Above all, your college must provide you with stimulating classroom experiences that encourage you to devote more time and effort to your learning. Additional institutional factors in your success include the following:

High standards and expectations for your performance

Assessment and timely feedback

Peer support

Encouragement and support for you to explore human differences

Emphasis on your first college year

Respect for diverse ways of knowing

Integrating prior learning and experience

Academic support programs tailored to your needs

Ongoing application of learned skills

Active learning

Out-of-class contact with faculty[1]

Ideally, you and your college collaborate to create success in every way possible. The cooperative nature of college life is echoed in the following practical advice from a college graduate, recounted in Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom:

Professors do care about how you are doing in their class; they genuinely want you to succeed, but they will give you the grade you earn. There are people and resources on campus for you to utilize so you can earn the grade you want. Your professors are one of those resources, and are perhaps the most important. Go see them during office hours, ask them questions about the material and get extra help if you need it . . . Another resource to utilize can be found in the campus learning center . . . The first time I took a paper there, I recall standing outside the door for about ten minutes thinking of an excuse not to go in. Thankfully I saw a classmate walk in and I followed suit . . . Thanks to that first visit, I received an A- on the paper!

Ensuring Success in Your First Year

Why is the first year of college so important? So much happens that year! Shouldn’t there be a grace period for the newest students to get acclimated to college before the pressure sets in?

The fact is that the first year of college is the most crucial time in your college life. So much is happening, but it serves to establish your trajectory to success. Consider the following typical first-year experiences, all of which strategically support students during this critical make-or-break period.

Orientation

Most first-year students attend an orientation program, which typically leads to the following results:

Students participate in more educationally enriching activities

Students perceive the campus environment to be more supportive

Students have greater developmental gains during their first year of college

Students are more satisfied with their overall college experience

First-Year Seminars

First-year seminars may be of the “orientation to college” variety; others may be based on your curriculum. Students who participate in these seminars tend to

Be more challenged academically

Be more active and collaborative in learning activities

Interact more frequently with faculty

Think of the campus environment as being more supportive

Gain more from their first year of college

Make greater use of campus services

Advising

The quality of academic advising is the single most powerful predictor of your satisfaction with the campus environment. First-year students who rate their advising as good or excellent

Are more likely to interact with faculty in various ways

Perceive the institution’s environment to be more supportive

Are more satisfied with their overall college experience

Gain more from college in most areas

Early Warning Systems

Early warning systems are especially important for students who start college with risk factors or who may be struggling academically. Midterm progress reports, course tests and other assessments, and early alert systems are most effective at helping students cope with difficulties in the first year.

Learning Communities

Learning communities are programs that enroll groups of students in a common set of courses. The effects of learning communities are greatest for first-year students. Students report gains in personal and social development, competence, and satisfaction with the undergraduate college experience.

Student Success Initiatives

Student success courses typically address issues like how to use campus support resources, manage time, study well, develop careers and skills, set goals, take tests, and take notes. The College Success course you are in right now is such an initiative.

Remediation

About one-third of first-year students take developmental courses to bring their academic skills up to a level that will enable them to perform well in college. Developmental courses can make the difference in a student’s decision to stay in college or drop out.

Grades and Your First-Year Success

Your freshman year accounts for a significant portion of grades that can be used in getting an internship.

Your freshman year can account for a significant portion of grades that matter to starting your career.

Top companies can have early recruitment programs that begin identifying prospective students and looking at grades as early as your sophomore year.

Many top clubs and major-specific honoraries on campus look at your grades in the screening process.

When you get good grades as a freshman, you tend to keep getting good grades as a sophomore, junior, and senior.

Instructors tend to give the benefit of the doubt to students who get good grades.

The best advice is to commit to making your freshman year count. Make it the absolute best. The earlier you can establish good habits during this time, the easier your future years will be—not just in college, but in your work environment, at home, and beyond.

Tips for First-Year Students Embarking on Academic Success

The following is a list of tips from a college educator for college students embarking on their journey to academic success:

Early is on time, on time is late, and late is unacceptable!

Get the book(s) and read the book(s).

Take notes in class and when reading for class.

Know your professors (email, office location, office hours, etc.) and be familiar with what is in the course syllabus.

Put away your phone during class.

Emails need a salutation, a body, and a close.

Don’t write the way you might text—using abbreviations and clipped sentences.

Never academically advise yourself!

Apply for scholarships—all of them!

Speak it into existence and keep your eyes on the prize.

Enjoy the ride! Cheers!

Activity: Develop Your Personal Definition of Success

For this activity, create your own definition of success. Dictionary.com defines success as “the favorable outcome of something attempted.” For many students in college, success means passing a class, earning an A, or learning something new. Beyond college, some people define success in terms of financial wealth; others measure it by the quality of their relationships with family and friends.

Here is an example of a brief, philosophical definition of success:

To laugh often and much; to win the respect of intelligent people and the affection of children; to earn the appreciation of honest critics and endure the betrayal of false friends; to appreciate beauty, to find the best in others; to leave the world a bit better, whether by a healthy child, a garden patch or a redeemed social condition; to know even one life has breathed easier because you have lived. This is to have succeeded. –Ralph Waldo Emerson

Ultimately, before we can know if we are successful, we must first define what success means for ourselves.

Directions

Develop a 750-word essay defining what success means to you in college and beyond. To help you develop this essay, you might want to consider the following:

Find a quote (or make one up) that best summarizes your definition of success (be sure to cite the author and the source, such as the URL).

Why does this quote best represent your personal definition success?

What people do you consider to be successful and why?

What is your definition of success?

What will you do to achieve success?

What is the biggest change you need to make in order to be successful in college?

How will you know you’ve achieved success?

Success and Pride

Almost every successful person begins with two beliefs: the future can be better than the present, and I have the power to make it so. –David Brooks, columnist and political commentator

If the prospect of committing to the path of higher education still feels daunting, you might find inspiration in thinking about the many potential gains you can experience. Talk with friends, family members, and others who have been to college and to people who have succeeded—in whatever ways they define success. Listen for clues about what they feel worked and what didn’t and what they would change. Do you hear threads of topics broached so far in this course?

College success is an attainable goal, so be encouraged that you are on a path of great potential. Below is the success story of a college graduate. Might your story be similar to this one someday?

Something Was Different

I have earned both a bachelor’s and a master’s degree and I have nearly twenty years of teaching experience. Would you ever guess that I contemplated not going to college at all? I originally thought about going to beauty school and becoming a cosmetologist. It was to me, honestly the easy way out since I was sick of all the drama after high school. The thought of college seemed overwhelming. Why did I really need to have a college degree when all I ever wanted was to get married and be a stay-at-home mom? My friends weren’t going to college either, so I often wondered if going would complicate our friendship.

I decided to go anyway, and it did separate us a bit. While I was writing a ten-page paper for my summer class in Genetics and Heredity, my friends were swimming in my pool. They also had the chance to buy new cars and new clothes and to go on vacations. I just went to school, driving my used Nissan Sentra, without much more than gas money and a few extra bucks. Again, why was I doing this? It would have been easier to just do what my friends were doing.

Little by little, semesters went by and I graduated with my bachelor’s degree in Education. I started substitute teaching immediately and within six months I was offered a full-time job. Just like that, I had more money and all kinds of new opportunities and I could now consider a new car or going on vacation just like my friends. At that point, I decided to continue my education and get my master’s degree. Yes, it was a lot of hard work again, and yes, my friends wondered why I wanted to go back again, but I knew then that this was the best choice for me. The challenge wasn’t knowing where I wanted my career to go, but rather overcoming the pull to settle into a lifestyle or career because it was easy, not because it was what I wanted.

By the time I graduated with my master’s degree I realized that something was different. For all the years that I felt behind or unable to keep up with what my friends had, I was suddenly leaps and bounds ahead of them career-wise. I now had two degrees, a full-time teaching job, and a plan to keep my career moving forward. I was able to do all of the things that they had done all those years and more. None of them had careers, just jobs. None of them had long-term plans. None of them were as satisfied with their choices any longer and a few of them even mentioned that they were jealous of my opportunity to attend college.

Don’t be fooled. Being a college student is a lot of work and, like me, most students have questioned what they are doing and why they are doing it. However, the rewards certainly outweigh all of the obstacles. I used to hear, “Attending college will make you a well-rounded person” or “It sets you apart from those that do not attend,” yet it never felt true at the time. Eventually though, you will come to a point where you realize those quotes are true and you will be on your way to earning that degree!”

—Jacqueline Tiermini, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

What Matters to Student Success: A Review of the Literature; National Postsecondary Education Cooperative

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College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Choices and Personal Responsibilities for Success. Authored by: Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer and Zack Varpness. Provided by: Chadron State College. Located at: https://courses.candelalearning.com/collegesuccess2/chapter/introduction-to-choices-and-personal-responsibility-for-success/. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution

Instructional Support: Options and Resources. Provided by: California Community Colleges Online Education Initiative. Located at: https://apps.3cmediasolutions.org/oei/11-Instructional-Support/story.html. License: CC BY: Attribution

Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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3

Goal Setting and Time Management

6

Defining Goals

If you don’t know where you are going, you might wind up someplace else.  —Yogi Berra, baseball player and coach

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain how time management plays a factor in goal setting, leading to short-term, medium-term, and long-term objectives

Identify overall academic goals

Identify and apply motivational strategies to support goal achievement

Explore the social aspects of achieving goals (networking, social media, etc.)

Brainstorm factors that might hinder goal achievement and possible ways to address these issues

Time Management and Goal Setting

There is no doubt that doing well in college is a sizable challenge, especially for first-year students, who run the greatest risk of dropping out. You are faced with new physical surroundings, new social environments, new daily tasks and responsibilities, and most likely new financial obligations. Overall, you are swamped with new challenges! Do you feel confident that you can attend to all of them in a balanced, committed way? What will be your secret of success?

Success Begins with Goals

Goals! A goal is a desired result that you envision and then plan and commit to achieve. Goals can relate to family, education, career, wellness, spirituality, and many other areas of your life. Generally, goals are associated with finite time expectations, even deadlines.

As a college student, many of your goals are defined for you. For example, you must take certain courses, you must comply with certain terms and schedules, and you must turn in assignments at specified times. These goals are mostly set for you by someone else.

But there are plenty of goals for you to define yourself. For example, you decide what you’d like to major in. You decide how long you are going to be in college or what terms you want to enroll in. You largely plan how you’d like your studies to relate to employment and your career.

Goals can also be sidetracked. Consider the following scenario in which a student makes a discovery that challenges her to reexamine her goals, priorities, and timetables:

Janine had thought she would be an accountant, even though she knew little about what an accounting job might entail. Her math and organizational skills were strong, and she enjoyed taking economics courses and well as other courses in her accounting program. But when one of her courses required her to spend time in an accounting office working with taxes, she decided that accounting was not the right fit for her, due to the higher-stress environment and the late hours.

At first she was concerned that she invested time and money in a career path that did not match her disposition. She feared that changing her major would add to her graduation time. Nevertheless, she did decide to change her major and her career focus.

Janine is now a statistician with a regional healthcare system. She is very happy with her work. Changing her major from accounting to statistics was the right decision for her.

This scenario represents some of the many opportunities we have, on an ongoing basis, to assess our relationship to our goals, reevaluate priorities, and adjust. Opportunities exist every day—every moment, really!

Below is a set of questions we can ask ourselves at any turn to help focus on personal goals:

What are my top-priority goals?

Which of my skills and interests make my goals realistic for me?

What makes my goals believable and possible?

Are my goals measurable? How long will it take me to reach them? How will I know if I have achieved them?

Are my goals flexible? What will I do if I experience a setback?

Are my goal controllable? Can I achieve them on my own?

Are my goals in sync with my values?

As you move through your college career, make a point to ask these questions regularly.

Aids to Successful Goal Setting

The following video examines five aids to help ensure that your goal setting will be effective and will “take hold” and serve you in the short and long term.

https://youtu.be/aVstw9HYl-o

Activity: Identifying Your Overall Academic Goals

In order to achieve long-term goals (from college on), you’ll need to first achieve a series of shorter goals. Medium-term goals (this year and while in college) and short-term goals (today, this week, and this month) may take several days, weeks, months, or even a few years to complete, depending on your ultimate long-term goals. Identify what you will need to do in order to achieve your all goals. Gain a full view of your trajectory.

Objectives

Identify and prioritize 3–5 long-term academic goals.

Identify three related medium-term and short-term academic goals.

Identify what you are doing toward achieving these identified goals (for example, how you are managing time).

Directions

Review the worksheet below, and fill in the blank sections to the best of your ability.

Guidelines

Phrase goals as positive statements: Affirm your excitement and enthusiasm about attaining a goal by using positive language and expectations.

Be exacting: Set a precise goal that includes dates, times, and amounts, so that you have a basis for measuring how closely you achieve your goals.

Prioritize: Select your top goals, and put them in order of importance. This helps you understand the degree to which you value each of them. It will also help you better manage related tasks and not feel overwhelmed.

Assume you are the captain of your ship: Identify goals that are linked to your own performance, not dependent on the actions of other people or situations beyond your control.

Be realistic but optimistic and ambitious: The goals you set should be achievable, but sometimes it pays to reach a little higher than what you may think is possible. Certainly don’t set your goals too low.

Be hopeful, excited, and committed: Your enthusiasm and perseverance can open many doors!

Examples of Long-Term Academic Goals

I plan to graduate with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. My major will be Radio-Television-Film, and my minor will be Spanish.

I plan to graduate with a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service degree with a major in international history.

I plan to attain an associate’s degree in nursing (ADN).

Examples of Medium-Term or Short-Term Academic Goals:

I would like to study abroad in Spain before I graduate.

I want to get involved in a service-learning project in my community, as part of my preparation for eventual service work.

I plan to join the student government organization so that I can gain some experience at the community college where I take classes part-time.

Additional immediate goals might be applying for financial aid, getting a part-time job, taking a short leave of absence, speaking with a counselor, etc.

You may wish to use an academic planning worksheet to help you identify courses and terms. Here is a sample from the Penn State Eberly College of Science: Blank Academic Plan.

GOAL PRIORITIES | MY PRECISE GOALS | WHAT I AM DOING NOW TO ACHIEVE THESE GOALS
Example: Long-term goal #1 | I plan to graduate with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. My major will be Radio-Television-Film, and my minor will be Spanish | I am attending the college of my choice and getting good grades in my major.
Example: Related medium-term goal | I would like to study abroad in Spain before I graduate. | I need to get busy with this!  I will inquire this week about what I need to do next.
Example: Related short-term goal | I will need to get financial aid for at least a portion of my studies. | I have filled out the forms for financial aid. Last week I applied for a part-time job.
Long-term goal #1 |  |
Related medium-term goal |  |
Related short-term goal |  |
Long-term goal #2 |  |
Related medium-term goal |  |
Related short-term goal |  |
Long-term goal #3 |  |
Related medium-term goal |  |
Related short-term goal |  |
Long-term goal #4 |  |
Related medium-term goal |  |
Related short-term goal |  |
Long-term goal #5 |  |
Related medium-term goal |  |
Related short-term goal |  |

Motivational Strategies to Support You

Every day we make choices. Some are as simple as what clothes we decide to wear, what we’ll eat for lunch, or how long to study for a test. But what about life-altering choices—the ones that leave us at a crossroads? How much thought do you give to taking Path A versus Path B? Do you like to plan and schedule your choices, by making a list of pros and cons, for instance? Or do you prefer to make decisions spontaneously and just play the cards that life deals you as they come?

The videos that follow are about choices for success. Watch them with a keen eye and ear. Take notes, too. You might pick up some some good ideas for strategies that can help you reach your goals.

Haroon F. Mirza is the director of business development at Intel Corp. Mirza talks about defining moments, how life is all about choices and how we can create defining moments that can change the trajectory of our lives:

https://youtu.be/vwYATDjoK3k

Dr. Nido R. Qubein is the president of High Point University. In this video he discusses his book Seven Choices for Success and Significance: How to Live Life from the Inside Out:

https://youtu.be/3c24nkadvwI

Stephen Covey, author of 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, talks about the role choice has in managing change and accomplishing what we want:

https://youtu.be/U8LM4C1l70U

L’il Wayne is an American rapper from New Orleans, Louisiana. In this video he talks about his strategies for success:

https://youtu.be/9_eozHLOsX4

Social Aspects of Achieving Your Goals

Setting goals can be a challenge, but working toward them, once you’ve set them, can be an even greater challenge—often because it implies that you will be making changes in your life. You might be creating new directions of thought or establishing new patterns of behavior, discarding old habits or starting new ones. Change will always be the lifeblood of achieving your goals.

You may find that as you navigate this path of change, one of your best resources is your social network. Your family, friends, roommates, coworkers, and others can help you maintain a steady focus on your goals. They can encourage and cheer you on, offer guidance when needed, share knowledge and wisdom they’ve gained, and possibly partner with you in working toward shared goals and ambitions. Your social network is a gold mine of support.

Here are some easy ways you can tap into goal-supporting “people power”:

Make new friends

Study with friends

Actively engage with the college community

Volunteer to help others

Join student organizations

Get an internship

Work for a company related to your curriculum

Stay connected via social media (but use it judiciously)*

Keep a positive attitude

Congratulate yourself on all you’ve done to get where you are

*A note about social media: More than 98 percent of college-age students use social media, says Experian Simmons. Twenty-seven percent of those students spent more than six hours a week on social media (UCLA, 2014). The University of Missouri, though, indicates in a 2015 study that this level of use may be problematic. It can lead to symptoms of envy, anxiety, and depression. Still, disconnecting from social media may have a negative impact, too, and further affect a student’s anxiety level.

Is there a healthy balance? If you feel overly attached to social media, you may find immediate and tangible benefit in cutting back. By tapering your use, your can devote more time to achieving your goals. You can also gain a sense of freedom and more excitement about working toward your goals.

Dealing with Setbacks and Obstacles

At times, unexpected events and challenges can get in the way of best-laid plans. For example, you might get sick or injured or need to deal with a family issue or a financial crisis. Earlier in this section we considered a scenario in which a student realized she needed to change her major and her career plans. Such upsets, whether minor or major, may trigger a need to take some time off from school—perhaps a term or a year. Your priorities may shift. You may need to reevaluate goals.

Problem-Solving Strategies

Below is a simple list of four problem-solving strategies. They can be applied to any aspect of your life.

What is the problem? Define it in detail. How is it affecting me and other people?

How are other people dealing with this problem? Are they adjusting their time management skills? Can they still complete responsibilities, and on time?

What is my range of possible solutions? Are solutions realistic? How might these solutions help me reach my goal/s?

What do I need to do to implement solutions?

You may wish to also review the earlier set of questions about focusing with intention on goals.

Be confident that you can return to your intended path in time. Acknowledge the ways in which you need to regroup. Read inspiring words from people who have faced adversity and gained. Line up your resources, be resolved, and proceed with certainty toward your goals.

If one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours. –Henry David Thoreau, author

Summary

Success with goals (any goals—education, family, career, finances, etc.) is essentially a three-part process:

Identify your long-term, medium-term and short-term goals.

Set priorities to accomplish these goals.

Manage your time according to the priorities you’ve set.

By following these three straightforward steps, you can more readily achieve goals because you clearly organize the process and follow through with commitment. Focus your sights on what you want to acquire, attain, or achieve. Prioritize the steps you need to take to get there. And organize your tasks into manageable chunks and blocks of time. These are the roadways to accomplishment and fulfillment.

In the following passage from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom, former political-science student Patricia Munsch—now a college counselor—reflects on how a structured, conscientious approach to decision-making and goal setting in college can lead to fulfillment and achievement.

What Do You Enjoy Studying?

There is a tremendous amount of stress placed on college students regarding their choice of major. Everyday, I meet with students regarding their concern about choosing right major; the path that will lead to a fantastic, high-paying position in a growth industry. There is a hope that one decision, your college major, will have a huge impact on the rest of your life.

Students shy away from subject areas they enjoy due to fear that such coursework will not lead to a job. I am disappointed in this approach. As a counselor I always ask—what do you enjoy studying? Based on this answer it is generally easy to choose a major or a family of majors. I recognize the incredible pressure to secure employment after graduation, but forcing yourself to choose a major that you may not have any actual interest in because a book or website mentioned the area of growth may not lead to the happiness you predict.

Working in a college setting I have the opportunity to work with students through all walks of life, and I do believe based on my experience, that choosing a major because it is listed as a growth area alone is not a good idea. Use your time in college to explore all areas of interest and utilize your campus resources to help you make connections between your joy in a subject matter and the potential career paths. Realize that for most people, in most careers, the undergraduate major does not lead to a linear career path.

As an undergraduate student I majored in Political Science, an area that I had an interest in, but I added minors in Sociology and Women’s Studies as my educational pursuits broadened. Today, as a counselor, I look back on my coursework with happy memories of exploring new ideas, critically analyzing my own assumptions, and developing an appreciation of social and behavioral sciences. So to impart my wisdom in regards to a student’s college major, I will always ask, what do you enjoy studying?

Once you have determined what you enjoy studying, the real work begins. Students need to seek out academic advisement. Academic advisement means many different things; it can include course selection, course completion for graduation, mapping coursework to graduation, developing opportunities within your major and mentorship.

As a student I utilized a faculty member in my department for semester course selection, and I also went to the department chairperson to organize two different internships to explore different career paths. In addition, I sought mentorship from club advisors as I questioned my career path and future goals. In my mind I had a team of people providing me support and guidance, and as a result I had a great college experience and an easy transition from school to work.

I recommend to all students that I meet with to create their own team. As a counselor I can certainly be a part of their team, but I should not be the only resource. Connect with faculty in your department or in your favorite subject. Seek out internships as you think about the transition from college to workplace. Find mentors through faculty, club advisors, or college staff. We all want to see you succeed and are happy to be a part of your journey.

As a counselor I am always shocked when students do not understand what courses they need to take, what grade point average they need to maintain, and what requirements they must fulfill in order to reach their goal—graduation! Understand that as a college student it is your responsibility to read your college catalog and meet all of the requirements for graduation from your college. I always suggest that students, starting in their first semester, outline or map out all of the courses they need to take in order to graduate. Of course you may change your mind along the way, but by setting out your plan to graduation you are forcing yourself to learn what is required of you.

I do this exercise in my classes and it is by far the most frustrating for students. They want to live in the now and they don’t want to worry about next semester or next year. However, for many students that I see, the consequence of this decision is a second semester senior year filled with courses that the student avoided during all the previous semesters. If you purposefully outline each semester and the coursework for each, you can balance your schedule, understand your curriculum and feel confident that you will reach your goal.

—Dr. Patricia Munsch, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

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Defining Goals. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Choices and Personal Responsibility. Authored by: Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by: Chadron State College. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution

Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

Image of basketball players. Authored by: Torehan Sharman. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/7xY7ju. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Five Rules of Goal Setting: How to set SMART, Motivating Personal Goals. Authored by: MindToolsVideos. Located at: https://youtu.be/aVstw9HYl-o. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

TEDxYouth@Toronto 2011 - Haroon Mirza - The Power of One Moment. Authored by: TEDxYouthToronto. Located at: https://youtu.be/vwYATDjoK3k. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Seven Choices for Success and Significance. Authored by: High Point University. Located at: https://youtu.be/3c24nkadvwI. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Stephen Covey Video on Choosing Success. Authored by: Leadership Skills. Located at: https://youtu.be/U8LM4C1l70U. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Lil Wayne I TRY NOT TO SLEEP. Authored by: mycomeup. Located at: https://youtu.be/9_eozHLOsX4. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

7

Your Physical Environment

I think it’s important to get your surroundings as well as yourself into a positive state . . .  –Heidi Klum, fashion model and television host

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Analyze the impact of your surroundings while you study

Define distraction and multitasking

Assess the degree to which personal technology may help or hinder your study efforts

The Impact of Your Surroundings While You Study

If a researcher walked up to you right now and asked you to identify your favorite place to study, what would your immediate response be? Would it be your home—perhaps your sunny kitchen? Maybe your dorm room or bedroom—a relaxed space you can call your own? Maybe it would be a busy café in the heart of town or a remote log cabin, if you have access to one. What are your preferences for your physical surroundings when you study? What are the attributes of your most conducive study environment?

In the following video, Mark Montgomery, an educational consultant and college admissions expert, reminds students that while their image of college may be much about socializing, they will ideally spend a good portion of their time studying. He shows some accommodating physical spaces at Seattle University.

https://youtu.be/hJzAxhnrMGg

Student Responses

College administrators, like the one in the video you just watched, may have their own ideas about what constitutes good study space. But what do students say? Below are comments from several students about their favorite “go-to” study spots:

Jared: I like to take my laptop into the Alley Café and use the wifi while I write papers and work on homework. It’s in a nice spot and there’s always people around. I need my caffeine and some noise around me so I don’t fall asleep. Recently I’ve been using the library. It’s quieter, but I meet other students there and we use the group study rooms. We work on group projects. I like being around other people when I study.

Butch: I like to study on a picnic table in the garden outside my dorm. Sometimes I just park myself on the grass. But I tend to get distracted outside, so my second favorite place to study is the library. I used to hate libraries because I didn’t like how quiet they were, but then I realized I can actually get work done there. So I go downstairs. There’s a corner that I like, a comfy chair, and I can read or take a nap. If I need to put the pedal to the metal I sit at a table.

LeeAnne: The main library is my go-to. If I need sources for a paper, the staff help me find articles with their online services. There is a wide selection of books, too, but if I can’t find something the staff will order it through a different school or library. Sometimes the space gets real crowded, like during exam week, and it can be hard to find an open computer. But it’s comforting to see I’m not the only student doing a paper last-minute. The best place for relaxing or writing is the third floor. I like looking out the windows at the scenery.

It’s not surprising to find that there are some recurring student favorites when it comes to good study environments. The following locations are all-time winners:

A library

A bookstore

A park

A classroom

A study partner’s house

A community center

A tutoring center

Activity: Factors Influencing Study Spaces

Many factors impinge upon or promote the effectiveness of a study space. In this activity, you identify and reflect on factors that are part of your regular study environment.

Objectives

Identify factors that impinge upon or promote effective, distraction-free study spaces.

Examine how the factors are relevant to your personal study spaces.

Directions

Circle your preferred answer in the table below.

Read more at 11 Ways Your Study Environment Affects Productivity (And How You Can Improve It) from Western Governors University.

|  | Your Study Environment
YES | NO |
|  | Music: Background music is generally “easy” on the ear and can enhance study productivity, as well as drown out other distractions. Depends on your personal tolerance, though. Headphones negatively impact memory and information retention.
|  | Background noise: Volume of noise and persistence can be major distractions. Try out other environments.
|  | Smells: Any smell, delightful or otherwise, has the potential to pull your attention away from your work. You may want to change your spot.
|  | Lighting: Good lighting is essential. Without good lighting, you may strain or squint, get a headache, or tire. Be aware of the lighting conditions.
|  | Temperature and humidity: If either is too extreme, it can make you uncomfortable and get in the way of effective studying.
|  | Facebook, email, smart phone: Distractions come in all sizes, shapes, and colors. What draws your attention away from the task at hand? Remove all distractions.
|  | Comfort—too much or too little: Too much of a good thing can be counterproductive. Best to study at a desk in a good chair, sitting up straight, rather than in bed, lying down. Be aware of how you feel.
|  | Associations with other activities: Make sure that you associate the environment you’re in with schoolwork, study and concentration. Try new spaces if the associations are not supportive.
|  | The clock: You may wish to set time goals for your studies. But avoid “being a slave” to the clock. Be clear about what you intend to accomplish and how much time you want to devote.
|  | Other people: Depending on who the people are, they can help or distract. Study groups can be very helpful, but housemates all around can be distracting. Know your limits and your weaknesses.
|  | Feng shui: This is the art of placement in your physical environment. Nurture your thoughts, emotions, and senses with good organization of furniture, knickknacks, etc. Avoid feeling cramped. Create a clean, neat workspace.

Does this exercise give you any ideas for ways in which you might change where you study? How might you alter your physical environment to better support your schoolwork?

Distractions and Multitasking

“Multitasking”—doing several things at the same time—has become a common word for describing what many of us do every day in the modern world. Our busy lifestyles and our ever-present devices suggest that many of us have become multitasking experts.

But is multitasking real? Is it possible to do several things at the same time? Can we actually check Facebook, watch television, read a textbook, and write a paper at roughly the same time . . . productively?

Switch Tasks = Lose Productivity

Evidence suggests that multitasking is not, in fact, possible. Psychology research shows that we can attend to only one cognitive task at a time.[1] What we call multitasking is actually just switching back and forth between tasks quickly. This isn’t necessarily a problem, but we lose time with each switch. The loss may only be one-tenth of a second, but the time adds up. Think about your own experience.

Busy Brains

Researchers have found that multitasking increases production of the stress hormone, cortisol, and the fight-or-flight hormone, adrenaline.[2] These hormone-level increases can cause the brain to literally overheat, which leads to foggy mental processing. So multitasking while studying for a final exam might not be a good idea.

Multitasking also taxes the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that integrates information. Your capacity for problem-solving decreases with the number of tasks you try to perform at the same time.

Personal Technology: Helping or Hindering Your Study Efforts

The perceived need to multitask is driven largely by the technology takeover of recent years. Smartphones, email, social networking, Instagram, Twitter . . . all make multitasking seem both necessary and possible. They all require switching in and out of a line of thinking. With these technologies, we face constant information overload and distraction.

Becoming More Productive

How can we become more productive with our time and energy, given our tendency to multitask? Read the tips below:

Try “batch processing”: Have set times during the day for checking and responding to emails.

Use concentrated time: Block off time for working on just one task. You may need to turn off your phone.

Do what’s most important first: Make goals for the day and accomplish them. The sense of achievement can help you resist anxiety-driven multitasking.

What are your thoughts on multitasking? How does it affect your productivity? The following video, from the University of British Columbia, features students talking about multitasking. Does it exist? Is it effective? Listen in, or view the full discussion.

https://youtu.be/QStKeI9Bluc

Activity: The Perils of Multitasking

Objectives

Examine the aspects of multitasking that modern society experiences.

Take stock of statistics about the perils of multitasking.

Directions

Review The Perils of Multitasking, an infographic from OnlineCollege.org.

Take notes on highlights of the infographic.

Complete the self-check quiz on multitasking and your physical environment, below, by choosing the best answer.

"The True Cost Of Multi-Tasking." Psychology Today. Web. 30 Mar. 2016.

Levitin, Daniel J. "Why the Modern World Is Bad for Your Brain." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 2015. Web. 30 Mar. 2016.

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Your Physical Environment. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Students Talk: Multitasking. Authored by: JWang. Provided by: UBC Learning Commons. Located at: http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/students-talk-multitasking/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

UBC Students Talk: Multitasking - Does It Work?. Authored by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://youtu.be/QStKeI9Bluc. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Educational Consultant Explains Importance of College Study Spaces. Authored by: GreatCollegeAdvice. Located at: https://youtu.be/hJzAxhnrMGg. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

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8

Your Use of Time

Better three hours too soon than a minute too late.  —William Shakespeare, playwright

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Evaluate how you currently use your time

Explore time management strategies to make time for college success activities (studying, going to class, extracurricular activities, etc.)

Identify procrastination behaviors and strategies to avoid them

Uses of Time in Daily Life

As most students discover, college is not the same as high school. For many students, college is the first time they are “on their own” in an environment filled with opportunity. And while this can be exciting, you may find that social opportunities conflict with academic expectations. For example, a free day before an exam, if not wisely spent, can spell trouble for doing well on the exam. It is easy to fall behind when there are so many choices and freedoms.

One of the main goals of a college education is learning how to learn. In this section we zoom in on learning how to skillfully manage your time. To be successful in college, it’s imperative to be able to effectively manage your time.

In the following Alleyoop Advice video, Alleyoop (Angel Aquino) discusses what many students discover about college: there is a lot of free time—and just as many challenges to balance free time with study time.

https://youtu.be/xP541bNEvG0

Three Steps to Good Time Management

There are three important steps in learning to effectively manage your time:

Identify your time management style

Create a schedule

Get better at prioritizing

In the following sections, we’ll examine these steps in detail.

Step 1: Identify Your Time Management Style

Click into the activity below and answer the questions to identify whether your time management style more closely aligns with the early bird, the pressure cooker, the balancing act, or the improviser.

Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

Assessing Your Responses

Which of the four basic time-management personality types did you select the most? Which did you select the least? Do you feel like these selections match the student you have been in the past? Has your previous way of doing things worked for you, or do you think it’s time for a change? Remember, we can all always improve!

Learn more below about your tendencies. Review traits, strengths, challenges, and tips for success for each of the four time-management personality types.

The Early Bird

Traits: You like to make checklists and feel great satisfaction when you can cross something off of your to-do list. When it comes to assignments, you want to get started as soon as possible (and maybe start brainstorming before that), because it lets you stay in control.

Strengths: You know what you want and are driven to figure out how to achieve it. Motivation is never really a problem for you.

Challenges: Sometimes you can get more caught up in getting things done as quickly as possible and don’t give yourself enough time to really mull over issues in all of their complexity.

Tips for Success: You’re extremely organized and on top of your schoolwork, so make sure you take time to really enjoy learning in your classes. Remember, school isn’t all deadlines and checkboxes—you also have the opportunity to think about big-picture intellectual problems that don’t necessarily have clear answers.

The Balancing Act

Traits: You really know what you’re capable of and are ready to do what it takes to get the most out of your classes. Maybe you’re naturally gifted in this way or maybe it’s a skill that you have developed over time; in any case, you should have the basic organizational skills to succeed in any class, as long as you keep your balance.

Strengths: Your strength really lies in your ability to be well rounded. You may not always complete assignments perfectly every time, but you are remarkably consistent and usually manage to do very well in classes.

Challenges: Because you’re so consistent, sometimes you can get in a bit of a rut and begin to coast in class, rather than really challenging yourself.

Tips for Success: Instead of simply doing what works, use each class as an opportunity for growth by engaging thoughtfully with the material and constantly pushing the boundaries of your own expectations for yourself.

The Pressure Cooker

Traits: You always get things done and almost always at the last minute. Hey, it takes time to really come up with good ideas!

Strengths: You work well under pressure, and when you do finally sit down to accomplish a task, you can sit and work for hours. In these times, you can be extremely focused and shut out the rest of the world in order to complete what’s needed.

Challenges: You sometimes use your ability to work under pressure as an excuse to procrastinate. Sure, you can really focus when the deadline is tomorrow, but is it really the best work you could produce if you had a couple of days of cushion?

Tips for Success: Give yourself small, achievable deadlines, and stick to them. Make sure they’re goals that you really could (and would) achieve in a day. Then don’t allow yourself to make excuses. You’ll find that it’s actually a lot more enjoyable to not be stressed out when completing schoolwork. Who would have known?

The Improviser

Traits: You frequently wait until the last minute to do assignments, but it’s because you’ve been able to get away with this habit in many classes. Sometimes you miss an assignment or two, or have to pretend to have done reading that you haven’t, but everyone does that sometimes, right?

Strengths: You think quickly on your feet, and while this is a true strength, it also can be a crutch that prevents you from being really successful in a class.

Challenges: As the saying goes, old habits die hard. If you find that you lack a foundation of discipline and personal accountability, it can be difficult to change, especially when the course material becomes challenging or you find yourself struggling to keep up with the pace of the class.

Tips for Success: The good news is you can turn this around! Make a plan to organize your time and materials in a reasonable way, and really stick with it. Also, don’t be afraid to ask your instructor for help, but be sure to do it before, rather than after, you fall behind.

Step 2: Create a Schedule

Now that you’ve evaluated how you have done things in the past, you’ll want to think about how you might create a schedule for managing your time well going forward. The best schedules have some flexibility built into them, as unexpected situations and circumstances will likely arise during your time as a student.

Your schedule will be unique to you, depending on the level of detail you find helpful. There are some things—due dates and exam dates, for example—that should be included in your schedule no matter what. But you also might find it helpful to break down assignments into steps (or milestones) that you can schedule, as well.

Again, this is all about what works best for you. Do you want to keep a record of only the major deadlines you need to keep in mind? Or does it help you to plan out every day so you stay on track? Your answers to these questions will vary depending on the course, the complexity of your schedule, and your own personal preferences.

Your schedule will also vary depending on the course you’re taking. So pull out your syllabus and try to determine the rhythm of the class by looking at the following factors:

Will you have tests or exams in this course? When are those scheduled?

Are there assignments and papers? When are those due?

Are there any group or collaborative assignments? You’ll want to pay particular attention to the timing of any assignment that requires you to work with others.

You can find many useful resources online that will help you keep track of your schedule. Some are basic, cloud-based calendars (like Google calendar, iCal, Outlook), and some (like iHomework) are specialized for students.

We all have exactly 168 hours per week. How do you spend yours? How much time will you be willing to devote to your studies?

Questions and Answers About Schedules:

Student 1: Do I really need to create a study schedule? I can honestly keep track of all of this in my head.

Answer: Yes, you really should create a study schedule. Your instructors may give you reminders about what you need to do when, but if you have multiple classes and other events and activities to fit in, it’s easy to lose track. A study schedule helps you carve out sufficient time—and stick to it.

Here is a tool to create a printable class study schedule to help you plan your time during the week from the California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office.

Here are ways to plan time (semester, week, days) from Ohio University’s Academic Advancement Center. Ohio University uses a quarterly system (11 weeks); you may need adapt their schedule to reflect your academic needs.

Student 2: Realistically, how much time should I spend studying for class?

Answer: This is a good question and a tough one to answer. Generally speaking, for each hour of class, you should spend a minimum of two to three hours studying. Thus, a typical three-hour class would require a minimum of six to nine hours of studying per week. If you are registered for 15 credits a semester, then you would need to spend 30 to 45 hours each week studying for your classes, which can be as much time needed for a full-time job.  If you think of college as a “job,” you will understand that it takes work to succeed.

One important college success skill is learning how to interact with the course materials.  Think about learning a sport or playing a game. How do you learn how to play it? With lots of practice and engagement. The more you play, the better you get. The same applies to learning. You need to engage with the course material and concentrate on learning.

Access The 168-Hour Exercise—How Do I Use My Time Now? from Ohio University’s Academic Advancement Center. It can help you understand how you use your time now and decide if you need to make changes.

Student 3: Aside from class time requirements, should I account for anything else as I draw up my schedule?

Answer: This depends on how detailed you want your schedule to be. Is it a calendar of important dates, or do you need a clear picture of how to organize your entire day? The latter is more successful, so long as you stick with it. This is also where it will be helpful to determine when you are most productive and efficient. When are you the most focused and ready to learn new things? In the morning, afternoon, or evening?

Here is a time management calculator for first-year students at the University of Texas El Paso.

Student 4: My life and school requirements change on a week-to-week basis. How can I possibly account for this when making a schedule?

Answer: Try creating a variable schedule in case an event comes up or you need to take a day or two off.

Student 5: I’m beginning to think that scheduling and time management are good ideas, but on the other hand they seem unrealistic. What’s wrong with cramming? It’s what I’ll probably end up doing anyway . . .

Answer: Cramming, or studying immediately before an exam without much other preparation, has many disadvantages. Trying to learn any subject or memorize facts in a brief but intense period of time is basically fruitless. You simply forget what you have learned much faster when you cram. Instead, study in smaller increments on a regular basis: your brain will absorb complex course material in a more profound and lasting way because it’s how the brain functions.

Step 3: Get Better at Prioritizing

Due dates are important. Set your short and long-term goals accordingly. Ask yourself the following:

What needs to get done today?

What needs to get done this week?

What needs to get done by the end the first month of the semester?

What needs to get done by the end the second month of the semester?

What needs to get done by the end of the semester?

Your time is valuable. Treat it accordingly by getting the most you can out of it.

Above all, avoid procrastination. Procrastination is the kiss of death, because it’s difficult to catch up once you’ve fallen behind. Do you have a problem with procrastination? Be on your guard so that it doesn’t become an issue for you.

Procrastination Checklist

Do any of the following descriptions apply to you?

My paper is due in two days and I haven’t really started writing it yet.

I’ve had to pull an all-nighter to get an assignment done on time.

I’ve turned in an assignment late or asked for an extension when I really didn’t have a good excuse not to get it done on time.

I’ve worked right up to the minute an assignment was due.

I’ve underestimated how long a reading assignment would take and didn’t finish it in time for class.

I’ve relied on the Internet for information (like a summary of a concept or a book) because I didn’t finish the reading on time.

If these sound like issues you’ve struggled with in the past, you might want to consider whether you have the tendency to procrastinate and how you want to deal with it in your future classes. You’re already spending a lot of time, energy, and money on the classes you’re taking—don’t let all of that go to waste!

Strategies to Combat Procrastination

Below are some effective strategies for overcoming procrastination:

Keep your studying “bite-sized”: When confronted with 150 pages of reading or 50 problems to solve, it’s natural to feel overwhelmed. Try breaking it down: What if you decide that you will read for 45 minutes or that you will solve 10 problems? That sounds much more manageable.

Turn off your phone, close your chat windows, and block distracting Web sites. The best advice we’ve ever heard is to treat your studying as if you’re in a movie theater—just turn it off.

Set up a reward system: If you read for 40 minutes, you can check your phone for 5 minutes. But keep in mind that reward-based systems only work if you stick to an honor system.

Study in a place reserved for studying ONLY. Your bedroom may have too many distractions (or temptations, such as taking a nap), so it may be best to avoid it when you’re working on school assignments.

Use checklists: Make your incremental accomplishments visible. Some people take great satisfaction and motivation from checking items off a to-do list. Be very specific when creating this list, and clearly describe each task one step at a time.

In the following video, Joseph Clough shares key strategies for conquering procrastination once and for all.

https://youtu.be/JjU0GbUDtrk

Activity: Time Management for College Success

Objectives

Assess your time management skills.

Identify strategies that might help you better manage your time.

Directions

For this activity, assess your time management skills by using Ohio University’s self-assessment. What are the results of your assessment?

Review the University of Georgia’s Time Management: 10 Strategies for Better Time Management and consider the strategies that might help you manage your time better and improve your time management skills.

Reflect in writing (750 words) on your current time management skills, and discuss how you might apply new strategies to improve time management in your life.

Submit your writing via instructions from your instructor.

Summary

The two areas most students struggle with when acclimating to college life are studying and time management. These issues arise from trying to manage newfound freedoms in college and from misunderstanding expectations of college classes. Time management is a means to build a solid foundation for college success.

The following essay, from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom, is a true-to-life short story from a former student at State University of New York (SUNY). The advice he shares includes a variety of techniques to help you cope with time-management demands at college. The lessons learned are meant to enlarge your awareness of your academic and personal goals and assist you in succeeding in college.

Time Is on Your Side

There I was, having just eaten dinner and realizing that I had less than twenty-four hours to go before my capstone paper was due for my History of Africa class. This paper was the only grade for the class and all I had done was some research. I still had thirty pages that needed to be written! How was I going to get this paper done?

I came to the realization that I was going to have to skip some classes and work through the night. I kept my roommate up with the click clack of the keyboard and worked through the night with breaks only to replenish the caffeine in my system. Morning came and I still had work to do.

I contacted my other professors letting them know that something came up and I wouldn’t be in class. Thankfully, I was in good standing in my other classes and could afford to miss one class. I snuck in a twenty minute nap and kept working. I finally finished about thirty minutes before the deadline. Exhausted and not terribly proud of myself, I trudged my way to class to drop off the paper and committed to never working like this again. After all, there was a small likelihood that I would get a decent grade; I was hoping for just a C to keep my GPA respectable. I went back to my room and slept for a long time. Imagine my amazement when I received my grade for the paper (and ultimately the class) and there was an A- staring me back in the face! How could this be possible?

My experience illustrates a very important lesson. Best practices do not always yield the best results. Logic would tell us that to manage a thirty-page paper would require the student to spread out all the tasks over the semester and do a little bit of work over a long period of time as opposed to a lot of work over a short period of time. The problem is that time management is a personal thing. Everyone works differently and excels under different circumstances.

The important thing to remember about time management is that there is not one method. Everyone must find what works best for her or him. There are some strategies that have been used for years and others that are new. While there are multiple perspectives on how best to set personal and professional goals, there are three general themes that influence the development of personal time management plans: identifying priorities, managing time, and managing energy.

The concept of time management is actually personal management. Where you are going or what you are trying to accomplish is more important than how fast you get there. Personal management demands organizing and executing around priorities. One thing to watch out for on your college journey is something called time famine. Time famine is the feeling of having too much to do and not enough time to do it. This happens often to college students and without warning. This was certainly the case with my paper. I certainly felt overwhelmed with thirty pages to write and not a lot of time available to write it in. However, there’s one really helpful aspect of time—you always know how much you have in a day. You know that in any given day, you have twenty-four hours to accomplish everything you need to do for that day. With that knowledge in hand it becomes an easy task to make smart choices when planning both the schedule for the day, as well as the energy needed to complete the tasks.

The objective of successful time management is to increase and optimize controllable time. Once you have a schedule made, don’t change it unless something of some serious urgency comes up. However, while managing time is challenging enough, there’s another concept out there about the management of your energy. Think of energy as money and time as what you’d like to buy. If you’re too tired (or energy broke) to be productive, it’s hard to accomplish (buy) everything on your schedule. Luckily, at the age of twenty-two, I had lots of energy and stamina to pull an all-nighter and finish the paper. If I tried to do that today at thirty-five, I would be asleep on my keyboard after a few hours. In order to always have enough of time currency, it’s important that you are physically energized, emotionally connected, and mentally focused on your purpose.

While an understanding of these general principles is essential for the development of sound time and energy management strategies, it is also important to focus on practical strategies that can be implemented to improve the college experience. The first recommendation is to know who you are and how you work. In this step, you need to examine all aspects of your current time management skills. Take a look at personal practices such as where you work, how you organize information and course materials, how current and future assignments and projects are prioritized, how commitments are balanced, and lastly, how you prevent burnout. Once you have taken stock in your current practices, you’ll have a better idea of what you need to do to improve.

Even today, I try to space out large projects and assignments and find that I am not as focused or motivated. I struggle to complete the task and when I do, it never feels like I did it well. However, when I revert back to that practice of waiting until the last minute, I am focused, energized, and motivated and the results have been very positive. In my own doctoral program, I have begun assignments a little too close to the deadlines but they ultimately get completed and I continue to be amazed at the high marks I get back. What does that tell me? It tells me I thrive in high-pressure situations where I have to focus intensely on one thing and stay focused for a long period of time. Is that method for everyone? Certainly not, but it works for some and it may or may not work for you. You must examine your own work habits and practices and look back at times that you have done well and times you have done poorly and identify habits that led to those results.

The next strategy is to create a personal time management method to help prioritize projects and activities. Try to identify and eliminate activities that may detract from effectively balancing your roles and responsibilities. In any given day, what are the most important things that need to be completed? What can be eliminated from your schedule that provides you the time you need to be successful? I like to think of this as the “five-year-old plan.” My five-year-old loves to play in the morning as her Mom and I are getting ready for work. The problem is that we need her to get ready for school, too. We put a plan in place that allows her to play in the morning, only after she is completely ready for school.

You need time to play, have fun, and socialize, but it should not come at the expense of higher priority tasks.

The next recommendation is to focus on the process of energy management. Create goals focused on physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional renewal. These goals can include, but are not limited to: getting seven to eight hours of sleep a night, taking small breaks during work sessions, eating healthy, exercising regularly, drinking lots of water, having a positive attitude, and practicing positive self-talk. Anytime I know I have a big work task or school task to complete, I am in the mindset of energy conversation—my energy. I make sure to get a good night sleep, eat my Wheaties, and think good vibes. These habits allow me to complete projects in a way that works for me.

Lastly, set up a reward system. One of the great things about creating prioritized lists of things that need to be done is the sense of accomplishment when you cross that item off the list. Once you’ve identified your major goals and tasks, identify a reward for each of these goals that provides an even greater sense of accomplishment. The reward should be personal and should encourage you to continue your good habits. What are the things you love to do? Write them down next to the major tasks and learn to practice delayed gratification by only doing those things once you’ve crossed the item off.

In conclusion, practical and tangible strategies for time and energy management can be the key to success for any undertaking. While each concept related to time and energy management is unique and provides a starting point for you to begin to develop strong personal management skills, these methods and ideas are not one-size-fits-all, and you need to explore the strategies and discover which components of each best fit your lifestyle and circumstances. Through this exercise, you can develop a personal management plan that is best suited to your needs and goals.

—Christopher L. Hockey, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

CC licensed content, Original

Your Use of Time. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of whiteboard calendar. Authored by: Sadie Hernandez. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/8XbPUw. License: CC BY: Attribution

Introduction to Time Management for Success. Authored by: Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by: Chadron State College. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution

Overcome Procrastination For Good!. Authored by: Joseph Clough. Located at: https://youtu.be/JjU0GbUDtrk. License: CC BY: Attribution

Online Study Skills and Managing Time. Provided by: California Community Colleges Online Education Initiative. Located at: https://apps.3cmediasolutions.org/oei/04-Online-Study-Skills-and-Managing-Time/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution

Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Alleyoop Advice: Time Management for College. Authored by: Alleyoop. Located at: https://youtu.be/xP541bNEvG0. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

4

Career Exploration

9

The Big Picture

Stay focused, go after your dreams, and keep moving toward your goals. —L L Cool J, musician

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify your motivations for attending college

Correlate your short-term goals with longer-range ambitions

Define college ready and career ready

Describe how your longer-term goals might evolve, relative to your deepening experiences

College and Career: Key Connections

Think back to the time when you first began to contemplate college. Do you remember specific thoughts? Were you excited about the idea? What began to draw you into the web of college life? What compels you to be here now?

In this topic on career and college readiness, we examine key connections between your motivations to be in college and your ultimate success in achieving your goals. We also examine how your college experience prepares you for a specific career, as well as for attaining general skills that you can apply to multiple pursuits.

Activity: Motivations for Attending College

Objectives

Review some of the many motivations students have for entering college.

Identify your personal motivations as pathways to achieving goals.

Directions

Review the table below, which lists various motivations cited by other students.

Identify your main motivations, and rank your top five.

Reflect on your selections in terms of how they connect with short-term and long-term plans for the future.

Understanding your motivations is essential to helping you not only prioritize your plans for the future but also gain inspiration about directions you may not have yet charted. Ultimately, your motivations for being in college align you with roadways to fulfilling your goals and ambitions.

MY TOP FIVE | MOTIVATIONS FOR ATTENDING COLLEGE
| Gain more qualifications in my field
| Increase my earning potential; make more money
| Challenge myself
| Show others that I can succeed
| Start an independent life
| Satisfy my curiosity
| Have fun
| Change my career
| Do what my parents were not able to do
| Find a better lifestyle
| Build my confidence
| Expand my social contacts; bond with new friends
| Improve my network of business associates
| Gain exposure to a wide array of topics
| Attend campus events
| Make my family happy
| Fulfill my dreams
| Take classes at home or work or anywhere
| Take advantage of campus resources like the library and gym
| Join a sports team
| Join campus organizations
| Spend my time during retirement
| Have continued support via alumni programs
| Learn to study and work on my own
| Gain access to professors
| Link up with people who already excel in the ways I aspire to
| Get sports spirit
| Gain more access to entertainment like theater and bands
| Be more productive in life
| Explore myself
| Become well versed in many subjects
| Dig deeper into learning than I did in high school
| Expand my knowledge of the world
| Others?

In the following essay excerpted from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom, former State University of New York (SUNY) student Jamie Edwards reflects on her motivations for being in college and how they affected her college direction and ultimately her career. The rest of this essay appears at the end of this page.

Learn What You Don’t Want, Part 1

For a long time, my plan had always been to be a kindergarten teacher. But when I began my undergraduate degree I fell into that ever-growing pool of college students who changed their major three times before graduation. I was swayed by family members, my peers, and the economy, but I eventually realized that I was investing my education in the wrong areas for the wrong reasons. It shouldn’t just be about salaries and job security. I needed to find that personal attachment.

At eighteen, it’s hard to see your entire life spread out before you. College may feel like a free-for-all at times, but the reality is that it’s one of the most defining times of our lives. It should never be squandered. I started to imagine my life beyond college—what I found important and the type of lifestyle I wanted in the end. I started thinking about the classes that I was actually interested in—the ones that I looked forward to each week and arrived early to just so I could get a seat up front.

A turning point for me was when I took the advice of a campus mentor and enrolled in a career exploration course. I learned more about myself in that class than I had in my entire three years at college prior to taking it. It showed me that my passion was something I had always thought about but never thought about as a career. . . . Through this realization and my participation in my career exploration class, I saw a viable future in the Higher Education Administration field.

—Jamie Edwards, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

Am I College and Career Ready?

Knowing what you truly want to gain from your college experience is the first step toward achieving it. But reaching your goals doesn’t necessarily mean you are college and career ready.

What does it mean to be ready for college and a career? In general, you are a college- and career-ready student if you have gained the necessary knowledge, skills, and professional behaviors to achieve at least one of the following:

Earn a certificate or degree in college

Participate in career training

Enter the workplace and succeed

For instance, if you are studying for a skilled trade license in college, or perhaps pursuing a bachelor of arts degree, you are college-ready if you have the reading, writing, mathematics, social, and thinking skills to qualify for and succeed in the academic program of your choice.

Similarly, you are a career-ready student if you have the necessary knowledge and technical skills needed to be employed in your desired field. For example, if you are a community college student ready to be a nurse, you possess the knowledge and skill needed to secure an entry-level nursing position, and you also possess required licensing.

Ultimately, college and career readiness demands students know more than just content, but demonstrate that they know how to learn and build upon that content to solve problems. They must develop versatile communication skills, work collaboratively and work competitively in a school or work environment. Ensuring that you possess both the academic and technical know-how necessary for a career beyond the classroom is a great step toward succeeding on whatever path you choose. —Washington, DC Office of the State Superintendent of Education

College and Career Readiness in Your State

So where are you on the readiness scale? You can find out how your state measures your readiness. Visit the Interactive State Map at the College and Career Readiness and Success Center of the American Institutes for Research Web site. The map leads you to definitions of college and career readiness for your state. It also provides metrics to measure readiness. And it provides information about programs and structures to help you and educators. You can compare states across one or more categories.

Student Voices on Being College and Career Ready

In the following video, a number of high school students and recent graduates reflect on college and career readiness and their futures. As you view the video, be thinking about how your short-term goals can connect with longer-range ambitions. You might also reflect on how your deepening experiences in college can lead to achieving your longer-term goals. After all, each new experience in your life builds upon the last. You may never truly “arrive” at a destination if indeed your life is an ongoing journey.

https://youtu.be/9pYqsShxqD4

The Marriage of College and Career

The oldest institution of higher learning in the United States is widely acknowledged to be Harvard University. It was established in 1636 with the aim of providing instruction in arts and sciences to qualify students for employment. In the 1779 Constitution of Massachusetts submitted by Samuel Adams, John Adams, and James Bowdoin to the full Massachusetts Convention, the following language was used:

Art. I.—Whereas our wise and pious ancestors, so early as the year one thousand six hundred and thirty six, laid the foundation of Harvard-College, in which University many persons of great eminence have, by the blessing of GOD, been initiated in those arts and sciences, which qualified them for public employments, both in Church and State . . .

Is “public employment” preparation still the goal of higher education institutions today? Indeed, it is certainly one of the many goals! College is also an opportunity for students to grow personally and intellectually. In fact, in a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, Americans were split on their perceptions of the main purpose of a college education:

47 percent of those surveyed said the purpose of college is to teach work-related skills.

39 percent said it is to help a student grow personally and intellectually.

12 percent said the time spent at college should be dedicated to both pursuits—teaching work-related skills and helping students grow personally and intellectually.

These statistics are understandable in light of the great reach and scope of higher education institutions. Today, there are some 5,300 colleges and universities in the United States, offering every manner of education and training to students.

What do employers think about the value of a college education? What skills do employers seek in their workforce? In 2014, Hart Research Associates conducted a survey on behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Universities. The survey revealed that the majority of employers believe that having field-specific knowledge as well as a broad range of knowledge and skills is important for recent college graduates to achieve long-term career success.

Employers also said that when they hire, they place the greatest value on skills and knowledge that cut across all majors. The learning outcomes they rate as most important include written and oral communication skills, teamwork skills, ethical decision-making, critical thinking, and the ability to apply knowledge in real-world settings.[1]

Employment Rates and Salaries

Consider, too, the following statistics on employment rates and salaries for college graduates. College does make a big difference!

The average college graduate earns about 75 percent more than a non-college graduate over a typical, forty-year working lifetime. (U.S. Census Bureau)[2]

In 2014, young adults ages 20 to 24 with a bachelor’s degree or higher had a higher employment rate (88.1 percent) than young adults with just some college (75.0 percent). (NCES)

The employment rate for young adults with just some college (63.7 percent) was higher than the rate for those who had completed high school. (NCES)

The employment rate for those who completed high school (46.6 percent) was higher than the employment rate for young adults who had not finished high school. (NCES)

Employment rates were generally higher for males than females at each level of educational attainment in 2014. (NCES)[3]

Over the course of a forty-year working life, the typical college graduate earns an estimated $550,000 more than the typical high school graduate. (PEW)

The median gap in annual earnings between a high school and college graduate as reported by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2010 is $19,550. (PEW)[4]

Perhaps most important, an overwhelming majority of college graduates—86 percent—say that college has been a good investment for them personally. (PEW)

Differences in Earnings between States

You may wish to use this Earnings and Educational Attainment (2011) interactive table to see how earnings for college graduates vs. high school–only graduates in your state compare with those in other states.

All in all, college imparts a wide and deep range of benefits. The short video Why College, below, shows that with a college degree you are more likely to

Have a higher salary

Have and keep a job

Get a pension plan

Be satisfied with your job

Feel your job is important

Have health insurance

https://youtu.be/-N6nru0nThg

Summary

Success in college can be measured in many ways: through your own sense of what is important to you; through your family’s sense of what is important to your collective group; through your institution’s standards of excellence; through the standards established by your state and country; through your employer’s perceptions about what is needed in the workplace; and in many respects through your own unfolding goals, dreams, and ambitions.

How are you striving to achieve your goals? And how will you measure your success along the way?

Below is the second part of Jamie Edwards’s essay (former student at State University of New York). Her advice is to make connections between the “now” of college experience and future career possibilities. She thinks that the more informed you are about your career options through real-life conversations and experiences, the better prepared you will be for your future—and the more confident you will be in your career decisions.

Learn What You Don’t Want, Part 2

From where I sit now—my former personal and professional struggles in tow—I offer up some pieces of advice that were crucial to getting me where I am today. Whether you’re an undecided major who is looking for guidance or a student with a clearly defined career path, I suggest the following:

Find a mentor—For me, everything began there. Without my mentor, I wouldn’t have done any of the other items I’m about to suggest. Finding the right mentor is crucial. Look for someone who can complement your personality (typically someone who’s the opposite of you). My advice would be to look beyond your direct supervisor for mentorship. It’s important to create an open forum with your mentor, because there may be a conflict of interest as you discuss work issues and other job opportunities. Potential mentors to consider are an instructor on campus, your academic advisor, a professional currently working in your prospective field, someone you admire in your community, or anyone in your network of friends or family that you feel comfortable discussing your future goals with.

Enroll in a Career Exploration/Planning course, or something similar—Even if you do not see the effects of this course immediately (such as dramatically changing your major), you will notice the impact down the road. Making educated career choices and learning job readiness skills will always pay off in the end. Through my career exploration class, I learned how to relate my personality and values to potential career fields. These self-assessments changed my entire thought process, and I see that influence daily. Beyond changing the way you think, the knowledge you gain about effective job search strategies is invaluable. Learning how to write purposeful résumés and cover letters, finding the right approach to the interview process, and recognizing your strengths and weaknesses are just a few of the benefits you can gain from these type of courses.

Complete a Job Shadow and/or Informational Interview—No amount of online research is going to give you the same experience as seeing a job at the front line. In a job shadow or an informational interview, you’re able to explore options with no commitment and see how your in-class experience can carry over to a real world setting. Additionally, you’re expanding your professional network by having that personal involvement. You never know how the connections you make might benefit you in the future. My only regret about job shadowing in college is that I didn’t do it sooner.

Do an Internship—A main source of frustration for recent grads is the inability to secure an entry-level position without experience. “How do I get a job to gain experience when I can’t get a job without experience?” This is how: do an internship or two! Most colleges even have a course where you can obtain credit for doing it! Not only will you earn credits towards graduation, but you’ll gain the necessary experience to put on your résumé and discuss in future interviews. Having completed four internships throughout my college career, I can’t say they were all great. However, I don’t regret a single one. The first one showed me the type of field I didn’t want to work in. The second confirmed that I was heading in the right direction with my career. My third and fourth internships introduced me to completely different areas of higher education which broadened my knowledge and narrowed my search simultaneously.

My takeaway is that sometimes you have to learn what you don’t want in order to find out what you do want. The more informed you are about career options through real-life conversations and experiences, the better prepared you will be for your future and the more confident you will be in your career decisions. Always explore your options because even if you learn you hate it, at least you’re one step close to finding what you love.

—Jamie Edwards, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

"Falling Short? College Learning and Career Success." Hart Research Associates, 20 Jan. 2015. Web. 31 Mar. 2016.

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"Fast Facts." Fast Facts. Web. 31 Mar. 2016.

"Is College Worth It?" Pew Research Centers Social Demographic Trends Project RSS. 2011. Web. 31 Mar. 2016.

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Student Voices: What Does it Mean to be College and Career Ready?. Authored by: Achieve. Located at: https://youtu.be/9pYqsShxqD4. License: CC BY: Attribution

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10

Career Paths

The only way to do great work is to love what you do. If you haven’t found it yet, keep looking. Don’t settle.  –Steve Jobs, cofounder and CEO of Apple

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Differentiate between “job” and “career”

Explain the five-step process for choosing a career, which includes aligning your personal interests and skills with appropriate fields

Identify sources for learning more about specific careers

Pursuing Your Professional Interests

One of the most widely known and successful American entrepreneurs of all time is Steve Jobs. He is best known as the cofounder, chairman, and chief executive officer of Apple, Inc. He also cofounded Pixar Animation Studios, and he was a member of the board of directors of the Walt Disney Company. Four hundred eighty-four inventions bear Jobs’s name.

From early on in his life, Jobs was interested in electronics. When he was thirteen, for instance, he worked at the Hewlett Packard factory, which developed hardware and software components. Jobs later reflected on how he landed this job when he called Mr. Hewlett to ask for parts for an electronics project: “[Hewlett] didn’t know me at all, but he ended up giving me some parts and he got me a job that summer working at Hewlett-Packard on the line, assembling frequency counters . . . well, assembling may be too strong. I was putting in screws. It didn’t matter; I was in heaven.”

Jobs’s electronics and computing career quickly unfolded as he pursued his passion for creating and promoting computing products. At age nineteen, he was a technician for Atari, a leading electronics, gaming and home-computer corporation. By twenty-one, he and his two partners had formed Apple, Inc. At thirty-four, he was named “Entrepreneur of the Decade” by Inc. magazine. And at fifty-two, he was inducted into the California Hall of Fame by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger.

All in all, Jobs was relentless about pursuing his interests and passions. The products he and his associates developed have transformed modern culture, including the iMac, iTunes, Apple Stores, the iPod, the iTunes Store, the iPhone, the App Store, the iPad, the Mac OS, and the Mac OS X.

Perhaps Steve Jobs never had a job he didn’t love. But he always had a career: pioneering the personal computer revolution.

This story of Steve Jobs’s professional pursuits illustrates a dream, a goal, and an ambition that many college students share: to be successful in earning money and finding personal satisfaction in employment.

In this section, we explore strategies that can help you chart your professional path and also attain ample reward. We begin by comparing and contrasting jobs and careers. We then look at how to match up your personal characteristics with a specific field or fields. We conclude by detailing a process for actually choosing your career. Throughout, you will find resources for learning more about this vast topic of planning for employment.

Job vs. Career

What is the difference between a job and a career? Do you plan to use college to help you seek one or the other?

There is no right or wrong answer, because motivations for being in college are so varied and different for each student. But you can take maximum advantage of your time in college if you develop a clear plan for what you want to accomplish. The table below shows some differences between a job and a career.

| JOB | CAREER
Definitions | A job refers to the work a person performs for a living. It can also refer to a specific task done as part of the routine of one’s occupation. A person can begin a job by becoming an employee, or by volunteering, for example, by starting a business or becoming a parent. | A career is an occupation (or series of jobs) that you undertake for a significant period of time in your life—perhaps five or ten years, or more. A career typically provides you with  opportunities to advance your skills and positions.
Requirements | A job you accept with an employer does not necessarily require special education or training. Sometimes you can get needed learning “on the job.” | A career usually requires special learning—perhaps certification or a specific degree.

Risk-Taking
A job may be considered a safe and stable means to get income. But jobs can also quickly change; security can come and go.
A career can also have risk. In today’s world, employees need to continually learn new skills and to adapt to changes in order to stay employed. Starting your own business can have risks. Many people thrive on risk-taking, though, and may achieve higher gains. It all depends on your definition of success.

Duration | The duration of a job may range from an hour (in the case of odd jobs, for example,) to a lifetime. Generally a “job” is shorter-term. | A career is typically a long-term pursuit.
Income | Jobs that are not career oriented may not pay as well as career-oriented positions. Jobs often pay an hourly wage. | Career-oriented jobs generally offer an annual salary versus a wage. Career-oriented jobs may also offer appealing benefits, like health insurance and retirement.
Satisfaction and contributing to society | Many jobs are important to society, but some may not bring high levels of personal satisfaction. | Careers allow you to invest time and energy in honing your crafts and experiencing personal satisfaction. Career pursuits may include making contributions to society.

In summary, a job lets you enjoy at least a minimal level of financial security, and it requires you to show up and do what is required of you. In exchange, you get paid.

A career, on the other hand, is more of a means of achieving personal fulfillment through the jobs you hold. In a career, your jobs tend to follow a sequence that leads to increasing mastery, professional development, and personal and financial satisfaction. A career requires planning, knowledge, and skills, too. If it is to be a fulfilling career, it requires that you bring into play your full set of analytical, critical, and creative thinking skills. You will be called upon in a career to make informed decisions that will affect your life in both the short term and the long term.

The following video gives explicit, textbook-style distinctions between the terms job, work, and career. You may especially appreciate this video if English is a second language for you or if you are a first-generation college student.

https://youtu.be/eNcl9d8x7yk

The next video takes a different look at jobs and careers. The speaker discusses the more affective, emotional aspects of pursuing a career. His emphasis is on the importance of being passionate about your work.

https://youtu.be/Fc7MvWOXj7c

Whether you pursue individual jobs or an extended career or both, your time with your employers will always comprise your individual journey. May your journey be as enjoyable and fulfilling as possible!

The Five-Step Process for Choosing Your Career

As your thoughts about career expand, keep in mind that over the course of your life, you will probably spend a lot of time at work—thousands of hours, in fact. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average workday is about 8.7 hours long, and this means that if you work 5 days a week, 50 weeks a year, for 35 years, you will spend a total of 76,125 hours of your life at work. These numbers should convince you that it’s pretty important to enjoy your career!

If you do pursue a career, you’ll find yourself making many decisions about it. Is this the right job for me? you may ask. Am I feeling fulfilled and challenged? Does this job enable me to have the lifestyle I desire? It’s important to consider these questions now, whether you’re just graduating from high school or college, or you’re returning to school after working for a while.

Choosing a career—any career—is a unique process for everyone, and for many people the task is daunting. There are so many different occupations to choose from. How do you navigate this complex world of work?

The California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office has identified a five-step decision process that will make your career path a little easier to find. Below are the steps:

Get to know yourself

Get to know your field

Prioritize your “deal makers” and rule out your “deal breakers”

Make a preliminary career decision and create a plan of action

Go out and achieve your career goal

Step 1: Get to Know Yourself

Get to know yourself and the things you’re truly passionate about.

Gather information about your career-related interests and values

Think about what skills and abilities come naturally to you and which ones you want to develop

Consider your personality type and how it you want it to play out in your role at work

The following video has some good ideas for ways of matching your personality and skills with a career. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/I-HLJxYAKbQ

This next video looks at the connection between childhood interests and career options. Several successful entrepreneurs and employees share stories about how they turned childhood interests into careers that suited them well. Learn how listening to your inner child can help you find the right career.

https://youtu.be/6-R0lW_Swio

Before moving on to step 2, you may wish to review the online surveys in the Personal Identity module, especially the Student Interest Survey for Career Clusters, which is available in both English and Spanish. Yet another survey is the Career Assessment Test. All can help you align career interests with personal qualities, traits, life values, skills, activities, and ambitions.

Ultimately, your knowledge of yourself is the root of all good decision-making and will guide you in productive directions.

Step 2: Get to Know Your Field

Get to know your field. You’ll want to investigate the career paths available to you. One of the handiest starting points and “filters” is to decide the level of education you want to attain before starting your first or your next job. Do you want to earn an associate’s degree, a bachelor’s degree, a master’s degree, or a doctorate or professional degree?

Step 3: Prioritize Your Deal Makers

Prioritize your deal makers and rule out your deal breakers. Educational requirements aren’t the only criteria that you will want to consider. Do you want to work outside or in an office? In the country or a city? In a big or small organization? For public organization or a private company? What type of industry is interesting to you? What role do you see yourself playing in the organization?

Step 4: Make a Preliminary Career Decision

Make a preliminary career decision and create a plan of action. Now that you have an idea of who you are and where you might find a satisfying career, how do you start taking action to get there? Some people talk to family, friends, or instructors in their chosen disciplines. Others have mentors in their lives with whom to discuss this decision. Your college has career counselors and academic advisers who can help you with both career decision-making and the educational planning process. But be advised: You’ll get the most from sessions with your counselor if you have done some work on your own.

Get started by using the Career Café or the Career Zone. Barbara Sher, speaker, career/lifestyle coach, and best-selling author, once wrote, “Find a career that you love and you will never work another day in your life.”

Step 5: Go out and Achieve Your Career Goal

Go out and achieve your career goal! Now it’s time to take concrete steps toward achieving your educational and career goals. This may be as simple as creating a preliminary educational plan for next semester or a comprehensive educational plan that maps out the degree you are currently working toward. You may also want to look for internships, part-time work, or volunteer opportunities that help you test and confirm you preliminary career choice. Your college counselor can help you with this step, as well.

Your work experiences and life circumstances will undoubtedly change throughout the course of your professional life, so you may need to go back and reassess where you are on this path in the future. But no matter if you feel like you were born knowing what you want to do professionally, or you feel totally unsure about what the future holds for you, remember that with careful consideration, resolve, and strategic thought, you can find a career that feels rewarding.

This isn’t necessarily an easy process, but you’ll find that your goals so much more tangible once you’ve set a preliminary career goal. Don’t forget: There is always support for you. Ask for any help you need!

Activity: Take the CAREERLINK Inventory

Objectives

Formally assess your aptitudes, interests, temperaments, physical capacities, preferred working conditions and career preparation time using the CareerLink Inventory instrument.

Directions

Access the CAREERLINK Inventory, add your name, and then click on the “Aptitudes” frog icon to begin the inventory. The CAREERLINK Inventory is designed to match the way you see yourself—your interests, aptitudes, temperaments, physical capacities, preferred working conditions, and desired length of preparation for employment–with available career information from the United States Department of Labor. The information you provide about yourself will produce a career profile showing to what extent your self-identified characteristics and preferences match those considered significant in 80 career clusters.

Your responses to the items contained in this inventory should reflect your honest self-judgments in order to provide you with meaningful career information. If you are unsure about a particular response, please answer as accurately as possible.

When you complete the inventory, review your personalized Career Inventory Results.

Write a 750-word reflection discussing the results of the inventory. Use the guidelines, below, to guide you.

To help you develop your reflections, you may want to consider the following:

What were your highest career-area clusters?

Review the work performed, worker requirements, sample occupations, related clusters, and response summary (this will make sense to you once you complete the inventory).  Do the results of the inventory surprise you?

Do you believe the Careerlink Inventory produced accurate or inaccurate suggestions for you?

Did you learn anything new about your career interests?

What insights from the inventory results might you apply to your life?

Follow your instructor’s directions for submitting this assignment.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that the average worker currently holds ten different jobs before age forty. This number is projected to grow. A prediction from Forrester Research is that today’s youngest workers will hold twelve to fifteen jobs in their lifetime.

What jobs are in store for you? Will your work be part of a fulfilling career? What exciting prospects are on your horizon?

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College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. License: CC BY: Attribution

11

College Majors

You have brains in your head. You have feet in your shoes. You can steer yourself any direction you choose. You’re on your own. And you know what you know. And YOU are the one who’ll decide where to go. —Dr. Seuss, children’s author

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

List key strategies for selecting a college major

Identify the relationship between college majors and career paths (both why they matter and why they don’t)

Identify sources for learning more about specific majors and related careers

Your Major

In the United States and Canada, your academic major—simply called “your major”—is the academic discipline you commit to as an undergraduate student. It’s an area you specialize in, such as accounting, chemistry, criminology, archeology, digital arts, or dance. In United States colleges and universities, roughly 2,000 majors are offered. And within each major is a host of core courses and electives. When you successfully complete the required courses in your major, you qualify for a degree.

Where did the term major come from? In 1877, it first appeared in a Johns Hopkins University catalogue. That major required only two years of study. Later, in 1910, Abbott Lawrence Lowell introduced the academic major system to Harvard University during his time as president there. This major required students to complete courses in a specialized discipline and also in other subjects. Variations of this system are now the norm in higher education institutions in the U.S. and Canada.

Why is your major important? It’s important because it’s a defining and organizing feature of your undergraduate degree. Ultimately, your major should provide you with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or behaviors you need to fulfill your college goals and objectives.

In this section we look at how to select your major and how your college major may correlate with a career. Does your major matter to your career? What happens if you change your major? Does changing your major mean you must change your career? Read on to find out!

How to Select Your College Major

Selecting your major is one of the most exciting tasks (and, to some students, perhaps one of the most nerve-wracking tasks) you are asked to perform in college. So many decisions are tied to it. But if you have good guidance, patience, and enthusiasm, the process is easier. Two videos, below, present lighthearted looks undertaking this task. In the first one, the following five tips are discussed:

Seek inspiration

Consider everything

Identify talents and interests

Explore available resources

In-depth career exploration

https://youtu.be/8I_Qw2NfSq0

The next video shares nine tips:

Narrow your choices by deciding what you don’t like.

Explore careers that might interest you. Ask questions.

Use your school’s resources.

Ask your teacher, counselor, and family about your strengths.

60 percent of students change their majors.

Your major isn’t going to define your life. But choosing one that interests you will make your college experience much more rewarding.

Go on informational interviews with people in careers that interest you.

There’s no pressure to decide now.

Take new classes and discover your interests.

https://youtu.be/V4dNoVsmU2o

Does Your College Major Matter to Your Career?

There are few topics about college that create more controversy than “Does your major really matter to your career?” Many people think it does; others think it’s not so important. Who is right? And who gets to weigh in? Also, how do you measure whether something “matters”—by salary, happiness, personal satisfaction?

It may be difficult to say for sure whether your major truly matters to your career. One’s college major and ultimate career are not necessarily correlated. Consider the following “factoids”:

50–70 percent of college students change their major at least once during their time in college.

Most majors lead to a wide variety of opportunities rather than to one specific career, although some majors do indeed lead to specific careers.

Many students say that the skills they gain in college will be useful on the job no matter what they major in.

Only half of graduating seniors accept a job directly related to their major.

Career planning for most undergraduates focuses on developing general, transferrable skills like speaking, writing, critical thinking, computer literacy, problem-solving, and team building, because these are skills that employers want.

College graduates often cite the following four factors as being critical to their job and career choices: personal satisfaction, enjoyment, opportunity to use skills and abilities, and personal development.

Within ten years of graduation, most people work in careers that aren’t directly related to their majors.

Many or most jobs that exist today will be very different five years from now.

It’s also important to talk about financial considerations in choosing a major.

Any major you choose will likely benefit you because college graduates earn roughly $1 million more than high school graduates, on average, over an entire career.

STEM jobs, though—science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—can lead to the thirty highest paying jobs. So if you major in any of these areas, you may be more likely to earn a higher salary.

Even though humanities and social sciences students may earn less money right after college, they may earn more by the time they reach their peak salary than students who had STEM majors.

Students who major in the humanities and social science are also more likely to get advanced degrees, which increases annual salary by nearly $20,000 at peak salary.

So where will you stand with regard to these statistics? Is it possible to have a good marriage between your major, your skills, job satisfaction, job security, and earnings?

Here to share a personal story about selecting your college major and finding the right career fit is Marc Luber, host of Careers Out There. Enjoy his insights, which he sums up with, “Focus on what makes you tick, and run with it.”

https://youtu.be/G03JSnmnSsI

The best guidance on choosing a major and connecting it with a career may be to get good academic and career advice and select a major that reflects your greatest interests. If you don’t like law or medicine but you major in it because of a certain salary expectation, you may later find yourself in an unrelated job that brings you greater satisfaction—even if the salary is lower. If this is the case, will it make more sense, looking back, to spend your time and tuition dollars studying a subject you especially enjoy?

Every student who pursues a college degree and a subsequent career may tell a different story about the impact of their major on their professional directions. In the following excerpt from Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom, writer and former SUNY student Kristen Mruk reflects on the choices she made and how they turned out.

The Student Experience

What I Would Like To Do

I thought I knew exactly what I wanted to do when I started college, but that changed three times by the time I graduated. Initially I started as an International Business major but ended up receiving a degree in Communication and continued on to graduate school. My greatest advice to you is to embrace feelings of uncertainty (if you have them) with regard to your academic, career, or life goals. Stop into the Career Services office on your campus to identify what it is that you really want to do when you graduate or to confirm your affinity to a career path. Make an appointment to see a counselor if you need to vent or get a new perspective. Do an internship in your field; this can give you a first-hand impression of what your life might look like in that role.

When I chose International Business, I did not do so as an informed student. I enjoyed and excelled in my business courses in high school and I had hopes of traveling the world, so International Business seemed to fit the bill. Little did I know, the major required a lot of accounting and economics which, as it turned out, were not my forte. Thinking this is what I wanted, I wasted time pursuing a major I didn’t enjoy and academic courses I struggled through.

So I took a different approach. I began speaking to the professionals around me that had jobs that appealed to me: Student Unions/Activities, Leadership, Orientation, Alumni, etc. I found out I could have a similar career, and I would enjoy the required studies along the way. Making that discovery provided direction and purpose in my major and extracurricular activities. I felt like everything was falling into place.

What I Actually Do

I would like to . . . ask you to consider why you are in college. Why did you choose your institution? Have you declared a major yet? Why or why not? What are your plans post-graduation? By frequently reflecting in this way, you can assess whether or not your behaviors, affiliations, and activities align with your goals.

What you actually do with your student experience is completely up to you. You are the only person who can dictate your collegiate fate. Remind yourself of the reasons why you are in college and make sure your time is spent on achieving your goals. There are resources and people on your campus available to help you. You have the control—use it wisely.

—Kristen Mruk, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

Resources

Success doesn’t come to you . . . you go to it. —Dr. Marva Collins, civil rights activist and educator

This quote really sets the stage for the journey you’re on. Your journey may be a straight line that connects the dots between today and your future, or it may resemble a twisted road with curves, bumps, hurdles, and alternate routes.

To help you navigate your pathway to career success, take advantage of all the resources available to you. Your college, your community, and the wider body of higher-education institutions and organizations have many tools to help you with career development. Be sure to take advantage of the following resources:

College course catalog: Course catalogs are typically rich with information that can spark ideas and inspiration for your major and your career.

Faculty and academic advisers at your college: Many college professors are also practitioners in their fields, and can share insights with you about related professions.

Fellow students and graduating seniors: Many of your classmates, especially those who share your major, may have had experiences that can inform and enlighten you—for instance, an internship with an employer or a job interview with someone who could be contacted for more information.

Students who have graduated: Most colleges and universities have active alumni programs with networking resources that can help you make important decisions.

Your family and social communities: Contact friends and family members who can weigh in with their thoughts and experience.

A career center: Professionals in career centers have a wealth of information to share with you—they’re also very good at listening and can act as a sounding board for you to try out your ideas.

Many organizations have free materials that can provide guidance, such as the ones in the table, below:

| WEB SITE | DESCRIPTION
1 | List of College Majors (MyMajors) | A list of more than 1,800 college majors—major pages include description, courses, careers, salary, related majors and colleges offering major
2 | Take the College Major Profile Quiz (About.com) | Quiz is designed to help students think about college majors, personality traits, and how they may fit within different areas of study
3 | Choosing a College Major Worksheet (Quint Careers) | A six-step process to finding a college major
4 | Common Mistakes Students Make in Choosing a Major (Wayne State University) | Lists common misperceptions about choosing a major and explains how these misperceptions can cloud future plans
5 | Best college majors for your career 2015-2016 (Yahoo.com) | Explore a detailed list of the top ten majors that give students the greatest potential for success in the workplace, good incomes, and ample job opportunities
6 | Explore Careers (BigFuture/The College Board) | Explore careers by selecting “Show me majors that match my interests,” “Show me new career ideas,” and “Show me how others made their choices”
7 | The College Major: What It Is and How To Choose One (BigFuture/The College Board) | When to choose a major, how to choose a major, “you can change your mind,” majors and graduate school, and majors and professions

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12

Professional Skill Building

Every artist was first an amateur. —Ralph Waldo Emerson, author

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

List specific skills that will be necessary for your career path

List transferable skills that will be valuable for any career path

Explain how to acquire necessary skills, both in and out of class, for your career goals

If you lived and worked in colonial times in the United States, what skills would you need to be gainfully employed? What kind of person would your employer want you to be? And how different would your skills and aptitudes be then, compared to today?

Many industries that developed during the 1600s–1700s, such as health care, publishing, manufacturing, construction, finance, and farming, are still with us today. And the professional abilities, aptitudes, and values required in those industries are many of the same ones employers seek today.

For example, in the health care field then, just like today, employers looked for professionals with scientific acumen, active listening skills, a service orientation, oral comprehension abilities, and teamwork skills. And in the financial field then, just like today, employers looked for economics and accounting skills, mathematical reasoning skills, clerical and administrative skills, and deductive reasoning.

Why is it that with the passage of time and all the changes in the work world, some skills remain unchanged (or little changed)?

The answer might lie in the fact there are are two main types of skills that employers look for: hard skills and soft skills.

Hard skills are concrete or objective abilities that you learn and perhaps have mastered. They are skills you can easily quantify, like using a computer, speaking a foreign language, or operating a machine. You might earn a certificate, a college degree, or other credentials that attest to your hard-skill competencies. Obviously, because of changes in technology, the hard skills required by industries today are vastly different from those required centuries ago.

Soft skills, on the other hand, are subjective skills that have changed very little over time. Such skills might pertain to the way you relate to people, or the way you think, or the ways in which you behave—for example, listening attentively, working well in groups, and speaking clearly. Soft skills are sometimes also called “transferable skills” because you can easily transfer them from job to job or profession to profession without much training. Indeed, if you had a time machine, you could probably transfer your soft skills from one time period to another!

What Employers Want in an Employee

Employers want individuals who have the necessary hard and soft skills to do the job well and adapt to changes in the workplace. Soft skills may be especially in demand today because employers are generally equipped to train new employees in a hard skill—by training them to use new computer software, for instance—but it’s much more difficult to teach an employee a soft skill such as developing rapport with coworkers or knowing how to manage conflict. An employer might rather hire an inexperienced worker who can pay close attention to details than an experienced worker who might cause problems on a work team.

In this section, we look at ways of identifying and building particular hard and soft skills that will be necessary for your career path. We also explain how to use your time and resources wisely to acquire critical skills for your career goals.

Specific Skills Necessary for Your Career Path

A skill is something you can do, say, or think right now. It’s what an employer expects you to bring to the workplace to improve the overall operations of the organization.

The table below lists four resources to help you determine which concrete skills are needed for all kinds of professions. You can even discover where you might gain some of the skills and which courses you might take.

Spend some time reviewing each resource. You will find many interesting and exciting options. When you’re finished, you may decide that there are so many interesting professions in the world that it’s difficult to choose just one. This is a good problem to have!

| RESOURCE | DESCRIPTION

1
Career Aptitude Test (Rasmussen College)
This test helps you match your skills to a particular career that’s right for you. Use a sliding scale to indicate your level of skill in the following skill areas: artistic, interpersonal, communication, managerial, mathematics, mechanical, and science. Press the Update Results button and receive a customized list customized of career suggestions tailored to you, based on data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. You can filter by salary, expected growth, and education.

2
Skills Profiler (Career OneStop from the U.S. Department of Labor)
Use the Skills Profiler to create a list of your skills, and match your skills to job types that use those skills. Plan to spend about 20 minutes completing your profile. You can start with a job type to find skills you need for a current or future job. Or if you are not sure what kind of job is right for you, start by rating your own skills to find a job type match. When your skills profile is complete, you can print it or save it.

3
O*Net OnLine
This U.S. government website helps job seekers answer two of their toughest questions: “What jobs can I get with my skills and training?” and “What skills and training do I need to get this job?” Browse groups of similar occupations to explore careers. Choose from industry, field of work, science area, and more. Focus on occupations that use a specific tool or software. Explore occupations that need your skills. Connect to a wealth of O*NET data. Enter a code or title from another classification to find the related O*NET-SOC occupation.

4 | Suggested Courses to Develop Skills that Prospective Employers Want (Psych Web) | If you are trying to strengthen particular skills, certain courses may be helpful. The list at this site is based on courses offered on many campuses and some of the skills the courses emphasize.

Transferable Skills for Any Career Path

Transferable (soft) skills may be used in multiple professions. They include, but are by no means limited to, skills listed below:

Dependable and punctual (showing up on time, ready to work, not being a liability)

Self-motivated

Enthusiastic

Committed

Willing to learn (lifelong learner)

Able to accept constructive criticism

A good problem solver

Strong in customer service skills

Adaptable (willing to change and take on new challenges)

A team player

Positive attitude

Strong communication skills

Good in essential work skills (following instructions, possessing critical thinking skills, knowing limits)

Ethical

Safety conscious

Honest

Strong in time management

These skills are transferrable because they are positive attributes that are invaluable in practically any kind of work. They also do not require much training from an employer—you have them already and take them with you wherever you go. Soft skills are a big part of your “total me” package.

So, identify the soft skills that show you off the best, and identify the ones that prospective employers are looking for. By comparing both sets, you can more directly gear your job search to your strongest professional qualities.

10 Top Skills You Need to Get a Job When You Graduate

The following video summarizes the ten top skills that the Target corporation believes will get you a job when you graduate. You can read a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/jKtbaUzHLvw

How to Find a New Job–Transferable Job Skills

If you are an international student, or perhaps English is your second language, the following video may especially appeal to you. It covers similar information to the 10 Top Skills video above. Discover how to find a new job more easily by learning how to identify and describe your transferable job skills in English.

https://youtu.be/7Kt4nz8KT_Y

For more extensive exploration, visit this checklist of transferable skills from Community Employment Services in Woodstock, Ontario.

Activity: Assess Your Soft Skills

Objectives

Review the transferable skills listed in the self-assessment exercises developed by Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC).

Analyze your strengths and areas in which you need to improve individual essential skills.

Instructions

Read each statement in Section 1 of any transferable skills pertinent to a profession you are interested in.

Place a checkmark in the column that best describes how well you can complete that task. Think about your work and life experiences as you consider each task.

Review your responses for each task. If you have checked five or more in the “Somewhat” and/or “No” columns, you may want to consider upgrading your oral communication skills.

Complete Section 2 to identify your training needs.

Self Assessments

Oral Communication Self-Assessment

Computer Use Self-Assessment

Writing Self-Assessment

Reading Self-Assessment

Document Use Self-Assessment

Numeracy Self-Assessment

Continuous Learning Self-Assessment

Working with Others Self-Assessment

Thinking Self-Assessment

Acquiring Necessary Skills (both in and out of class) for Your Career Goals

“Lifelong learning” is a buzz phrase in the twentieth-first century because we are awash in new technology and information all the time, and those who know how to learn, continuously, are in the best position to keep up and take advantage of these changes. Think of all the information resources around you: colleges and universities, libraries, the Internet, videos, games, books, films—the list goes on.

With these resources at your disposal, how can you best position yourself for lifelong learning and a strong, viable career? Which hard and soft skills are most important? What are employers really looking for?

The following list was inspired by the remarks of Mark Atwood, director of open-source engagement at Hewlett-Packard Enterprise. It contains excellent practical advice.

Learn how to write clearly. After you’ve written something, have people edit it. Then rewrite it, taking into account the feedback you received. Write all the time.

Learn how to speak. Speak clearly on the phone and at a table. For public speaking, try Toastmasters. “Meet and speak. Speak and write.”

Be reachable. Publish your email so that people can contact you. Don’t worry about spam.

Learn about computers and computing, even if you aren’t gearing for a career in information technology. Learn something entirely new every six to twelve months.

Build relationships within your community. Use tools like Meetup.com and search for clubs at local schools, libraries, and centers. Then, seek out remote people around the country and world. Learn about them and their projects first by searching the Internet.

Attend conferences and events. This is a great way to network with people and meet them face-to-face.

Find a project and get involved. Start reading questions and answers, then start answering questions.

Collaborate with people all over the world.

Keep your LinkedIn profile and social media profiles up-to-date. Be findable.

Keep learning. Skills will often beat smarts. Be sure to schedule time for learning and having fun!

Just Get Involved

After you’ve networked with enough people and built up your reputation, your peers can connect you with job openings that may be a good fit for your skills. The video, below, from Monash University in Australia offers the following tips:

Get involved in part-time work

Get involved in extracurricular activities

Get involved with employment and career development

“Just Get involved. There are so many opportunities and open doors for you.”

https://youtu.be/7EBDrTdccAY

Transferrable

We close this professional skill-building topic by sharing an essay by Vicki L. Brown, from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. Her message is this: “Do not let your college degree define who you are but rather, let the knowledge and skills you’ve acquired define who you are.”

Transferrable

I was supposed to be a teacher. Growing up, I had a classroom in the basement. I had a chalkboard, chalk, desks, textbooks, homework assignments, pens, pencils, paper—you name it, I had it! My brother and sister called me “Miss Brown.” All I ever wanted to be was an elementary school teacher—until I went to college.

As an elementary education major in college, I participated in a variety of classes—classes on literacy, math and science, philosophies of teaching, child development theory, principles of education, foundations of classroom behavior, and a whole list of others. We learned how to write a lesson plan, manage a classroom, how to set up a classroom, and much, much more.

In addition to my studies, I got involved in campus life. I joined the swimming and diving team, participated in campus activities, and joined clubs. I served as a captain of the swimming and diving team, became an Orientation Leader and a Resident Assistant, and completely immersed myself in the college experience. It was through these co-curricular activities that I was introduced to the world of higher education and a potentially new career choice for myself.

Through my academic and co-curricular activities, I gained valuable knowledge from all those I came in contact with—my peers, professors, Residence Hall Directors, and many college administrators. They encouraged me to explore what it was that I really wanted to do with my life. The more I got involved in my college experience, the more I learned about myself: what I’m good at, what I’m not good at, what I wanted to, and what I didn’t want to do.

As I started to sort through my options, I continued my studies, receiving both a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree in elementary education. While attending graduate school, I also worked as a Graduate Residence Hall Director. It was during that time when I finally made the decision to pursue a career in higher education administration/student affairs administration and leave my plans of being an elementary school teacher behind.

The decision wasn’t as difficult as one might think. When some listen to my story, I often hear, “You’ve wasted all that time and money . . .” But, the truth is I gained valuable, lifelong skills from the people I met, the classes I took, the jobs I’ve had, and the activities I involved myself in. Each and every skill you acquire is transferable. This is perhaps the best lesson I’ve ever learned in college.

The countless lesson plans I had to write for my education classes and student teaching have helped me prepare practice plans as the head coach for the men’s and women’s swimming and diving team. The skills I learned while planning programs and activities for my residents as a Resident Assistant, Hall Director, and Area Coordinator have helped me plan campus events as the Director of Student Activities in the Center for Student Leadership & Involvement. The classroom management techniques I learned in college have helped me to manage my office, staff, team, committees, etc. The communication and development theories I’ve learned have taught me how to have meaningful conversations with others and how best to meet their needs.

Each and every skill you learn throughout your academic, personal, and professional career are valuable and transferable. Do not let your college degree define who you are but rather, let the knowledge and skills you’ve acquired define who you are.

—Vicki L. Brown, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

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Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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13

Career Development

Desire! That’s the one secret of every man’s career. —Johnny Carson, entertainer

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the stages of career development, and identify the stage you’re currently in

Identify career development resources in your school, community, and beyond

Career Development

See if you can remember a time in your childhood when you noticed somebody doing professional work. Maybe a nurse or doctor, dressed in a lab coat, was listening to your heartbeat. Maybe a worker at a construction site, decked in a hard hat, was operating noisy machinery. Maybe a cashier at the checkout line in a grocery store was busily scanning bar codes. Each day in your young life you could have seen a hundred people doing various jobs. Surely some of the experiences drew your interest and appealed to your imagination.

If you can recall any such times, those are moments from the beginning stage of your career development.

What exactly is career development? It’s a lifelong process in which we become aware of, interested in, knowledgeable about, and skilled in a career. It’s a key part of human development as our identity forms and our life unfolds.

Stages of Career Development

There are five main stages of career development. Each stage correlates with attitudes, behaviors, and relationships we all tend to have at that point and age. As we progress through each stage and reach the milestones identified, we prepare to move on to the next one.

Which stage of career development do you feel you are in currently? Think about each stage. What challenges are you facing now? Where are you headed?

# | STAGE | DESCRIPTION
1 | GROWING | This is a time in early years (4–13 years old) when you begin to have a sense about the future. You begin to realize that your participation in the world is related to being able to do certain tasks and accomplish certain goals.

2
EXPLORING
This period begins when you are a teenager, and it extends into your mid-twenties. In this stage you find that you have specific interests and aptitudes. You are aware of your inclinations to perform and learn about some subjects more than others. You may try out jobs in your community or at your school. You may begin to explore a specific career. At this stage, you have some detailed “data points” about careers, which will guide you in certain directions.

3 | ESTABLISHING | This period covers your mid-twenties through mid-forties. By now you are selecting or entering a field you consider suitable, and you are exploring job opportunities that will be stabile. You are also looking for upward growth, so you may be thinking about an advanced degree.

4
MAINTAINING
This stage is typical for people in their mid-forties to mid-sixties. You may be in an upward pattern of learning new stills and staying engaged. But you might also be merely “coasting and cruising” or even  feeling stagnant. You may be taking stock of what you’ve accomplished and where you still want to go.

5
REINVENTING
In your mid-sixties, you are likely transitioning into retirement. But retirement in our technologically advanced world can be just the beginning of a new career or pursuit—a time when you can reinvent yourself. There are many new interests to pursue, including teaching others what you’ve learned, volunteering, starting online businesses, consulting, etc.

Keep in mind that your career-development path is personal to you, and you may not fit neatly into the categories described above. Perhaps your socioeconomic background changes how you fit into the schema. Perhaps your physical and mental abilities affect you define the idea of a “career.” And for everyone, too, there are factors of chance that can’t be predicted or anticipated. You are unique, and your career path can only be developed by you.

Career Development Resources in Your College, Community, and Beyond

Career experts say that people will change careers (not to mention jobs) five to seven times in a lifetime. So your career will likely not be a straight and narrow path. Be sure to set goals and assess your interests, skills and values often. Seek opportunities for career growth and enrichment. And take advantage of the rich set of resources available to you. Below are just a few.

Career Development Office on Campus

Whether you are a student, a graduate, or even an employer, you can obtain invaluable career development assistance at your college or university. Campus career centers can support, guide, and empower you in every step of the career development process, from initial planning to achieving lifelong career satisfaction.

Books on Career Development

Going to college is one of the best steps you can take to prepare for a career. But soon-to-be or recently graduated students are not necessarily guaranteed jobs. Staying educated about strategies for developing your career and finding new jobs will help you manage ongoing transitions. The book The Secret to Getting a Job After College: Marketing Tactics to Turn Degrees into Dollars, by author Larry Chiagouris, was written specifically to help recent grads increase their chances of finding a job right after college. It speaks to students in all majors and provides tips and tactics to attract the attention of an employer and successfully compete with other candidates to get the job you want.

The following video provides an introduction to the book. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/OpeIqQ5qTjc

Career Roadmap

You can use the Career Roadmap, from DePaul University, to evaluate where you are and where you want to be in your career/careers. It can help you decide if you want to change career paths and can guide you in searching for a new job. The road map identifies the following four cyclical steps:

Know yourself

Explore and choose options

Gain knowledge and experience

Put it all together: the job search process

Plan, Do, Check, Act

Figure 1. PDCA

PDCA (plan–do–check–act), shown in Figure 1, above, is a four-step strategy for carrying out change. You can use it to evaluate where you are in the career-development process and to identify your next steps. The strategy is typically used in the business arena as a framework for improving processes and services. But you can think of your career as a personal product you are offering or selling.

PLAN: What are your goals and objectives? What process will you use to get to your targets? You might want to plan smaller to begin with and test out possible effects. For instance, if you are thinking of getting into a certain career, you might plan to try it out first as an intern or volunteer or on a part-time basis. When you start on a small scale, you can test possible outcomes.

DO: Implement your plan. Sell your product—which is YOU and your skills, talents, energy, and enthusiasm. Collect data as you go along; you will need it for charting and analyzing in the Check and Act steps ahead.

CHECK: Look at your results so far. Are you happy with your job or wherever you are in the career-development process? How is your actual accomplishment measuring up next to your intentions and wishes? Look for where you may have deviated in your intended steps. For example, did you take a job in another city when your initial plans were for working closer to friends and family? What are the pros and cons? If you like, create a chart that shows you all the factors. With a chart, it will be easier to see trends over several PDCA cycles.

ACT: How should you act going forward? What changes in planning, doing, and checking do you want to take? The PDCA framework is an ongoing process. Keep planning, doing, checking, and acting. The goal is continuous improvement.

Internet Sites for Career Planning

Visit the Internet Sites for Career Planning Web site at the National Career Development Association’s site. You will find extensive, definitive, and frequently updated information on the following topics: Online Employment; Self-Assessment; Career Development Process; Occupational Information; Employment Trends; Salary Information; Educational Information; Financial Aid Information; Apprenticeships and Other Alternative Training Opportunities; Job Search Instruction and Advice; Job Banks; Career Search Engines; Resources for Diverse Audiences; Resources and Services for Ex-Offenders; Resources and Services for Youth, Teen and Young Adults; Resources and Services the Older Client; Industry and Occupation Specific Information; Researching Employers; Social Networking Sites; Disabilities; Military.

Activity: Campus to Career

Objective

Examine two critical questions about developing your career while still in college: How do I prepare myself for a career while I’m in college? How do I position myself to get ahead?

Instructions

Review the Campus to Career Web site called “Top College Career Tips from Freshman to Senior Year.”

Visit the section for each year of college: Freshman Year, Sophomore Year, Junior Year, and Senior Year. You may need to return to the main page of the site to access the sophomore, junior, and senior year pages of content.

Complete the self-check quiz below.

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14

Networking

Communication—the human connection—is the key to personal and career success. —Paul J. Meyer, motivational speaker

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define network and identify strategies for networking

Identify sources for developing professional networks

In the context of career development, networking is the process by which people build relationships with one another for the purpose of helping one another achieve professional goals.

When you “network,” you exchange information.

You may share business cards, résumés, cover letters, job-seeking strategies, leads about open jobs, information about companies and organizations, and information about a specific field.

You might also share information about meet-up groups, conferences, special events, technology tools, and social media.

You might also solicit job “headhunters,” career counselors, career centers, career coaches, an alumni association, family members, friends, acquaintances, and vendors.

Networking can occur anywhere and at any time. In fact, your network expands with each new relationship you establish. And the networking strategies you can employ are nearly limitless. With imagination and ingenuity, your networking can be highly successful.

Strategies for Networking

We live in a social world. Almost everywhere you go and anything you do professionally involves connecting with people. It stands to reason that finding a new job and advancing your career entails building relationships with these people. Truly, the most effective way to find a new job is to network, network, and network some more.

Once you acknowledge the value of networking, the challenge is figuring out how to do it. What is your first step? Whom do you contact? What do you say? How long will it take? Where do you concentrate efforts? How do you know if your investments will pay off?

For every question you may ask, a range of strategies can be used. Begin exploring your possibilities by viewing the following energizing video, Networking Tips for College Students and Young People, by Hank Blank. He recommends the following modern and no-nonsense strategies:

Hope is not a plan. You need a plan of action to achieve your networking goals.

Keenly focus your activities on getting a job. Use all tools available to you.

You need business cards. No ifs, ands, or buts.

Register your own domain name. Find your favorite geek to build you a landing page. Keep building your site for the rest of your life.

Attend networking events. Most of them offer student rates.

Master Linkedin because that is what human resource departments use. Post updates.

Think of your parents’ friends as databases. Leverage their knowledge and their willingness to help you.

Create the world you want to live in in the future by creating it today through your networking activity. These are the times to live in a world of “this is how I can help.”

https://youtu.be/TDVstonPPP8

See the LinkedIn for Students Web site.

International Student Series: Finding Work Using Your Networks

If you are an international student, or perhaps if English is not your native language, this video may especially appeal to you. It focuses on the importance of networking when looking for jobs and keeping an open mind. Simply talking to people can help you move from casual work to full-time employment.

https://youtu.be/1yQ5AKqpeiI

. . . And More Strategies

Strategies at College

Get to know your professors: Communicating with instructors is a valuable way to learn about a career and also get letters of reference if and when needed for a job. Professors can also give you leads on job openings, internships, and research possibilities. Most instructors will readily share information and insights with you. Get to know your instructors. They are a valuable part of your network.

Check with your college’s alumni office: You may find that some alumni are affiliated with your field of interest and can give you the “inside scoop.”

Check with classmates: Classmates may or may not share your major, but any of them may have leads that could help you. You could be just one conversation away from a good lead.

Strategies at Work

Join professional organizations: You can meet many influential people at local and national meetings and events of professional and volunteer organizations. Learn about these organizations. See if they have membership discounts for students, or student chapters. Once you are a member, you may have access to membership lists, which can give you prospective access to many new people to network with.

Volunteer: Volunteering is an excellent way to meet new people who can help you develop your career, even if the organization you are volunteering with is not in your field. Just by working alongside others and working toward common goals, you build relationships that may later serve you in unforeseen and helpful ways.

Get an internship: Many organizations offer internship positions to college students. Some of these positions are paid, but often they are not. Paid or not, you gain experience relevant to your career, and you potentially make many new contacts. Check CollegeRecruiter.com for key resources.

Get a part-time job: Working full-time may be your ultimate goal, but you may want to fill in some cracks or crevices by working in a part-time job. Invariably you will meet people who can feasibly help with your networking goals. And you can gain good experience along the way, which can also be noted on your résumé.

Join a job club: Your career interests may be shared by many others who have organized a club, which can be online or in person. If you don’t find an existing club, consider starting one.

Attend networking events: There are innumerable professional networking events taking place around the world and also online. Find them listed in magazines, community calendars, newspapers, journals, and at the Web sites of companies, organizations, and associations.

Conduct informational interviews: You may initiate contact with people in your chosen field who can tell you about their experiences of entering the field and thriving in it. Many Web sites have guidance on how to plan and conduct these interviews.

Strategies at Home and Beyond

Participate in online social media: An explosion of career opportunity awaits you with social media, including LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and many more. You will find an extensive list of suggested sites at CareerOneStop. Keep your communication ultra-professional at these sites. Peruse magazine articles, and if you find one that’s relevant to your field and it contains names of professionals, you can reach out to them to learn more and get job leads.

Ask family members and friends, coworkers, and acquaintances for referrals: Do they know others who might help you? You can start with the question “Who else should I be talking to?”

Use business cards or networking cards: A printed business card can be an essential tool to help your contacts remember you. Creativity can help in this regard, too. Students often design cards themselves and either hand print them or print them on a home printer.

Activity: Networking for Career Development

Objectives

Examine five strategies for obtaining and engaging with networking contacts

Develop relationships with new contacts to enhance your career

Instructions

Find information about five companies or people in your field of interest, and follow them on Twitter.

Get an account at four social media sites that you’ve not yet been active with that may enhance your career.

Find names of three people who interest you (peruse magazine articles, online sites, or other resources), and write an email to them explaining your interests and any requests you may have for information.

Sign up for newsletters from two professional organizations in a field you want to know more about.

Find and attend one in-person or online event within a month.

Now write about this experience at one of your social media sites.

For additional ideas and inspiration about networking for career development, watch the following video, Hustle 101: Networking For College Students and Recent Grads. The speaker, Emily Miethner, is a recent college graduate and the founder and president of NYCreative Interns, “dedicated to helping young creatives discover and then follow their dream careers.”

https://youtu.be/TyFfc-4yj80

Sources for Developing Professional Networks

The bottom line with developing professional networks is to cull information from as many sources as possible and use that information in creative ways to advance your career opportunities. The strategies listed in the section above provide you with a comprehensive set of suggestions. Below is a summary of sources you can use to network your way to career success:

Meet-up groups

Conferences

Special events

Technology tools

Social media

Career centers

Alumni association

Professional organizations

Volunteer organizations

Internships

Part-time job

Job club

Networking events

Magazine articles

Web sites

Career coaches

Headhunters

Career counselors

Family members

Friends

Coworkers

Vendors

College professors

Advisers

Classmates

Administrators

Coaches

Guest speakers

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15

Résumés and Cover Letters

The most important tool you have on a résumé is language. —Jay Samit, digital media innovator

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define the purpose and contents of a résumé

Identify characteristics of an effective cover letter and résumé

A résumé is a “selfie” for business purposes. It is a written picture of who you are—it’s a marketing tool, a selling tool, and a promotion of you as an ideal candidate for any job you may be interested in.

The word résumé comes from the French word résumé, which means “a summary.” Leonardo da Vinci is credited with writing one of the first known résumés, although it was more of a letter that outlined his credentials for a potential employer, Ludovico Sforza. The résumé got da Vinci the job, though, and Sforza became a longtime patron of da Vinci and later commissioned him to paint The Last Supper. You can see the letter and read the translation at Ladders Career Advice.

Résumés and cover letters work together to represent you in the brightest light to prospective employers. With a well-composed résumé and cover letter, you stand out—which may get you an interview and then a good shot at landing a job.

In this section we discuss résumés and cover letters as key components of your career development tool kit. We explore some of the many ways you can design and develop them for the greatest impact in your job search.

Your Résumé: Purpose and Contents

Your résumé is an inventory of your education, work experience, job-related skills, accomplishments, volunteer history, internships, residencies, and/or more. It’s a professional autobiography in outline form to give the person who reads it a quick, general idea of who you are. With a better idea of who your are, prospective employers can see how well you might contribute to their workplace.

As a college student or recent graduate, though, you may be unsure about what to put in your résumé, especially if you don’t have much employment history. Still, employers don’t expect recent grads to have significant work experience. And even with little work experience, you may still have a host of worthy accomplishments to include. It’s all in how you present yourself.

The following video is an animated look at why résumés are so important. You can read a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/Yc4pgOsUJfA

Elements of Your Successful Résumé

Perhaps the hardest part of writing a résumé is figuring out what format to use to organize and present your information in the most effective way. There is no correct format, per se, but most résumés follow one of the four formats below. Which format appeals to you the most?

Reverse chronological résumé: A reverse chronological résumé (sometimes also simply called a chronological résumé) lists your job experiences in reverse chronological order—that is, starting with the most recent job and working backward toward your first job. It includes starting and ending dates. Also included is a brief description of the work duties you performed for each job, and highlights of your formal education. The reverse chronological résumé may be the most common and perhaps the most conservative résumé format. It is most suitable for demonstrating a solid work history, and growth and development in your skills. It may not suit you if you are light on skills in the area you are applying to, or if you’ve changed employers frequently, or if you are looking for your first job. Reverse Chronological Résumé Examples

Functional résumé: A functional résumé is organized around your talents, skills, and abilities (more so than work duties and job titles, as with the reverse chronological résumé). It emphasizes specific professional capabilities, like what you have done or what you can do. Specific dates may be included but are not as important. So if you are a new graduate entering your field with little or no actual work experience, the functional résumé may be a good format for you. It can also be useful when you are seeking work in a field that differs from what you have done in the past. It’s also well suited for people in unconventional careers. Functional Résumé Examples

Hybrid résumé: The hybrid résumé is a format reflecting both the functional and chronological approaches. It’s also called a combination résumé. It highlights relevant skills, but it still provides information about your work experience. With a hybrid résumé, you may list your job skills as most prominent and then follow with a chronological (or reverse chronological) list of employers. This résumé format is most effective when your specific skills and job experience need to be emphasized. Hybrid Résumé Examples

Video, infographic, and Web-site résumé: Other formats you may wish to consider are the video résumé, the infographic résumé, or even a Web-site résumé. These formats may be most suitable for people in multimedia and creative careers. Certainly with the expansive use of technology today, a job seeker might at least try to create a media-enhanced résumé. But the paper-based, traditional résumé is by far the most commonly used—in fact, some human resource departments may not permit submission of any format other than paper based. Video Resume Examples; Infographic Résumé Examples; Web-Site Résumé Examples

An important note about formatting is that, initially, employers may spend only a few seconds reviewing each résumé—especially if there is a big stack of them or they seem tedious to read. That’s why it’s important to choose your format carefully so it will stand out and make the first cut.

Résumé Contents and Structure

For many people, the process of writing a résumé is daunting. After all, you are taking a lot of information and condensing it into a very concise form that needs to be both eye-catching and easy to read. Don’t be scared off, though! Developing a good résumé can be fun, rewarding, and easier than you think if you follow a few basic guidelines. In the following video, a résumé-writing expert describes some keys to success.

https://youtu.be/O5eVMaPZWmM

Contents and Components To Include

Your contact information: name, address, phone number, professional email address

A summary of your skills: 5–10 skills you have gained in your field; you can list hard skills as well as soft skills (refer to the Professional Skill Building topic in this course)

Work experience: depending on the résumé format you choose, you may list your most recent job first; include the title of the position, employer’s name, location, employment dates (beginning, ending)

Volunteer experience

Education and training: formal and informal experiences matter; include academic degrees, professional development, certificates, internships, etc.

References statement (optional): “References available upon request” is a standard phrase used on résumés, although it is often implied

Other sections: may include a job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, a summary statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences

Caution

Résumés resemble snowflakes in as much as no two are alike. Although you can benefit from giving yours a stamp of individuality, you will do well to steer clear of personal details that might elicit a negative response. It is advisable to omit any confidential information or details that could make you vulnerable to discrimination, for instance. Your résumé will likely be viewed by a number of employees in an organization, including human resource personnel, managers, administrative staff, etc. By aiming to please all reviewers, you gain maximum advantage.

Do not mention your age, gender, height or weight.

Do not include your social security number.

Do not mention religious beliefs or political affiliations, unless they are relevant to the position.

Do not include a photograph of yourself or a physical description.

Do not mention health issues.

Do not use first-person references. (I, me).

Do not include wage/salary expectations.

Do not use abbreviations.

Proofread carefully—absolutely no spelling mistakes are acceptable.

Top Ten Tips for a Successful Résumé

Aim to make a résumé that’s 1–2 pages long on letter-size paper.

Make it visually appealing.

Use action verbs and phrases. See Action Words and Phrases for Résumé Development.

Proofread carefully to eliminate any spelling, grammar, punctuation, and typographical errors.

Include highlights of your qualifications or skills to attract an employer’s attention.

Craft your letter as a pitch to people in the profession you plan to work in.

Stand out as different, courageous.

Be positive and reflect only the truth.

Be excited and optimistic about your job prospects!

Keep refining and reworking your résumé; it’s an ongoing project.

Remember that your résumé is your professional profile. It will hold you in the most professional and positive light, and it’s designed to be a quick and easy way for a prospective employer to evaluate what you might bring to a job. When written and formatted attractively, creatively, and legibly, your résumé is what will get your foot in the door. You can be proud of your accomplishments, even if they don’t seem numerous. Let your résumé reflect your personal pride and professionalism.

In the following video, Résumé Tips for College Students From Employers, several college graduate recruiters summarize the most important points about crafting your résumé. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/fYavOr8Gnac
Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

Résumé Writing Resources

| WEBSITE | DESCRIPTION
1 | Résumé Builder (from LinkedIn) | Turn your LinkedIn Profile into a great résumé in seconds. Pick a résumé template, customize the content, print and share the result.
2 | The Online Resume Builder (from My Perfect resume) | The online résumé builder is easy to use. Choose your résumé design from the library of professional designs, insert prewritten examples, then download and print your new résumé.
3 | Résumé Builder (from Live Career) | This site offers examples and samples, templates, tips, videos, and services for résumés, cover letters, interviews, and jobs.
4 | Résumé Samples for College Students and Graduates (from About Careers) | This site offers a plethora of sample résumés for college students and graduates. Listings are by type of student and by type of job. Résumé templates are also provided.
5 | JobSearch Minute Videos (from College Grad) | This site offers multiple to-the-point one-minute videos on topics such as print résumés, video résumés, cover letters, interviewing, tough interview questions, references, job fairs, and Internet job searching.
6 | Student [Career] Services (from Employment Ontario—Community Employment Services) | —Buzzwords and Skills to Include in your résumé —Action Words and Phrases for résumé Development —Checklist of Personal Skills
7 | 42 Résumé Dos and Don’ts Every Job Seeker Should Know (from the muse) | A comprehensive list of résumé dos and don’ts, which includes traditional rules as well as new rules to polish your résumé.

Your Résumé: It’s Like Online Dating

The following essay by Jackie Vetrano is excerpted from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. It’s a true-to-life story comparing job hunting to online dating. The writer’s “lessons learned” are meant to enlarge your awareness of your career goals as you attend college.

It’s Like Online Dating

Searching for a job, especially your first job, is a lot like online dating. It begins as a time commitment, gets nerve-wracking towards the middle, but ends in success and happiness if you follow the right process.

Like many single people with access to current technology, I ventured into the world of online dating. I went for coffee with potential mates who were instant no ways, some who left me scratching my head, and a few who I found a connection with.

But hang on. We are here to talk about professional development, not my love life.

Being on the job hunt is not easy. Many spend hours preparing résumés, looking at open positions, and thinking about what career path to travel. Occasionally, it is overwhelming and intimidating, but when taken one step at a time, it can be a manageable and an exciting process.

The first step of online dating is the most important: create your dating profile. Your profile is where you put your best foot forward and show off all of your attractive qualities through visuals and text. Online daters find their most flattering photos and then season the “about me” section of their profile with captivating and descriptive words to better display who they are and why other online daters should give them a shot.

Résumés follow this same logic. Your résumé should be clean, polished, and present you in your best light for future employers. Like dating profiles, they are detailed and should paint a picture for other prospective dates (or future employers) supporting why you deserve a chance at their love—an interview.

The unspoken rules of online dating profiles are very similar to the rules for writing a résumé. Whether you like it or not, your online dating profile and résumé both serve as a first impression. Profiles and résumés that are short, filled with spelling errors, or vague are usually passed over. Unless you are a supermodel and all you need is an enticing photo, your written description is very important to display who you are.

Your résumé should capture who you are, your skill set, education, past experiences, and anything else that is relevant to the job you hope to obtain. Knowing your audience is a key factor in crafting the perfect resume. Logically, if my online dating profile presented studious and quiet personality traits, I would likely start receiving messages from potential mates who are looking for someone who is seeking those traits. By taking a similar approach while writing a résumé, you can easily determine the tone, language, and highlighted skills and experiences you should feature. The tone of your résumé is dictated by the nature of the position you hope to obtain in the future. For example, hospitality jobs or positions that require you to interact with many people on a daily basis should be warm and welcoming while analytical jobs, such as accounting or research positions, should reflect an astute attention to detail. Your choice in language follows similar logic—use appropriate terms for the position you are seeking.

Unlike online dating profiles, your résumé should include your important contact information, including email address, telephone number, and mailing address. Some advise refraining from listing a mailing address, as this could create a bias due to some organizations that are looking for a new employee who is already in the area.

Unfortunately, this bias cannot be foreseen, which means you should use your best judgment when listing your contact information. If you include this contact information on your dating profile, you may have some very interesting text messages in the morning.

—Jackie Ventrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

Vetrano’s essay is continued ahead  in the “Cover Letters” section of this page.

Activity: Create Your Résumé

Objectives:

Compile data reflecting your professional and educational skills and accomplishments.

Assess the main résumé formats and select one that meets your needs.

Create a first draft of your professional résumé.

Directions:

Compile all needed information for your résumé, including your contact information, a summary of your skills, your work experience and volunteer experience, education and training (including your intended degree, professional development activities, certificates, internships, etc.). Optionally you may wish to include job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences.

Select one of the résumé builder tools listed above in the Résumé Writing Resources table.

Create your résumé, following instructions at your selected site.

Save your document as a PDF file.

Follow instructions from your instructor on how to submit your work.

Your Cover Letter

Cover letters matter. When you have to go through a pile of them, they are probably more important than the résumé itself. —woodleywonderworks

What Is a Cover Letter?

A cover letter is a letter of introduction, usually 3–4 paragraphs in length, that you attach to your résumé. It’s a way of introducing yourself to a potential employer and explaining why you are suited for a position. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully written cover letters as an initial method of screening out applicants who may who lack necessary basic skills, or who may not be sufficiently interested in the position.

 Cover Letter Examples

Often an employer will request or require that a cover letter be included in the materials an applicant submits. There are also occasions when you might submit a cover letter uninvited: for example, if you are initiating an inquiry about possible work or asking someone to send you information or provide other assistance.

With each résumé you send out, always include a cover letter specifically addressing your purposes.

Characteristics of an Effective Cover Letter

Cover letters should accomplish the following:

Get the attention of the prospective employer

Set you apart from any possible competition

Identify the position you are interested in

Specify how you learned about the position or company

Present highlights of your skills and accomplishments

Reflect your genuine interest

Please the eye and ear

The following video features Aimee Bateman, founder of Careercake.com, who explains how you can create an incredible cover letter. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/mxOli8laZos

Cover Letter Resources

| WEBSITE | DESCRIPTION
1 | Student Cover Letter Samples (from About Careers) | This site contains sample student/recent graduate cover letters (especially for high school students and college students and graduates seeking employment) as well as cover letter templates, writing tips, formats and templates, email cover letter examples, and examples by type of applicant
2 | How to Write Cover Letters (from CollegeGrad) | This site contains resources about the reality of cover letters, using a cover letter, the worst use of the cover letter, the testimonial cover letter technique, and a cover letter checklist
3 | LinkedIn Cover Letter | This site contains articles, experts, jobs, and more: get all the professional insights you need on LinkedIn
4 | Cover Letters (from the Yale Office of Career Strategy) | This site includes specifications for the cover letter framework (introductory paragraph, middle paragraph, concluding paragraph), as well as format and style

Your Cover Letter: It’s Like Online Dating

The following is another excerpt from the “It’s Like Online Dating” essay by Jackie Vetrano. Writing a cover letter may feel like a chore, but the payoff will be well worth it if you land the job you want!

It’s Like Online Dating

Sending a Message—The Cover Letter

After searching through dozens of profiles, online daters generally find a handful of people they can picture themselves with. There’s only one way to find out more about the person, and that’s by sending the first message.

The challenging part of the first message I send through online dating sites is determining what to say. I’ve never met these people before, but I do have access to their dating profiles filled with their hobbies, hometowns, and more. This is a perfect starting point for my message, especially if we both root for the same football team or if the other person likes to run as much as I do.

Your cover letter serves as an introduction to your future employer and should complement your résumé to create a shining first impression. It is incredibly challenging to sit in front of a blank screen trying to find a good starting point, which means you should look at the job posting and organization’s Web site for ideas about what to include.

Generally, these job postings provide a set of hard skills (such as proficiency with certain technology) and soft skills (such as public speaking, teamwork, or working in a flexible environment) required and desired for the posted position. This information provides you a list of what should be explained in your cover letter. Demonstrating your hard skills is a simple enough task by using examples or stating certifications, but describing your soft skills may require a little more thought. These soft skills can be exhibited by discussing specific examples of past experiences in previous jobs you’ve held, volunteer work, or work you’ve done in college classes.

After you have crafted your cover letter, you should send it to a few people you trust for their opinion and overall proofreading along with the job posting for their reference. It’s obvious that your cover letter should be free of spelling and grammar errors, but these trustworthy individuals will also be able to provide helpful insight about the examples you’ve used to display your soft skills.

—Jackie Vetrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

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Ru00e9sumu00e9s and Cover Letters. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of helping write a resume. Authored by: Gangplank HQ. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/9w2Wsw. License: CC BY: Attribution

Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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WHY DO I NEED A RESUME?. Authored by: Leinard Tapat. Located at: https://youtu.be/Yc4pgOsUJfA. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Resume Tips for College Students From Employers. Authored by: Clarkson University. Located at: https://youtu.be/fYavOr8Gnac. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

5 Steps to an Incredible Cover Letter. Authored by: Aimee Bateman. Located at: https://youtu.be/mxOli8laZos. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Resume Tutorial. Authored by: Cameron Cassidy. Located at: https://youtu.be/O5eVMaPZWmM. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

16

Interviewing

One important key to success is self-confidence. An important key to self-confidence is preparation. —Arthur Ashe, champion tennis player

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe effective strategies to prepare for an interview

Differentiate between different types of interview situations and identify appropriate interview techniques for each

Analyze different question types common in interviews

If your résumé and cover letter have served their purposes well, you will be invited to participate in an interview with the company or organization you’re interested in. Congratulations! It’s an exciting time, and your prospects for employment are very strong if you put in the time to be well prepared.

In this section we look at how to get ready for an interview, what types of interviews you might need to engage in, and what kinds of questions you might be asked.

Preparing Effectively for a Job Interview

Review the Job Description

When you prepare for an interview, your first step will be to carefully read and reread the job posting or job description. This will help you develop a clearer idea of how you meet the skills and attributes the company seeks.

Research the Company or Organization

Researching the company will give you a wider view of what the company is looking for and how well you might fit in. Your prospective employer may ask you what you know about the company. Being prepared to answer this question shows that you took time and effort to prepare for the interview and that you have a genuine interest in the organization. It shows good care and good planning—soft skills you will surely need on the job.

Practice Answering Common Questions

Most interviewees find that practicing the interview in advance with a family member, a friend, or a colleague eases possible nerves during the actual interview. It also creates greater confidence when you walk through the interview door. In the “Interview Questions” section below, you’ll learn more about specific questions you will likely be asked and corresponding strategies for answering them.

Plan to Dress Appropriately

Interviewees are generally most properly dressed for an interview in business attire, with the goal of looking highly professional in the eyes of the interviewer. At the DePaul University Career Center and CareerSpots.com Web site, click on Interview Dress to see three videos on dressing for success in your job interview. Learn exactly what is meant by “business casual,” and see the specific types of attire appropriate for men and women.

Come Prepared

Plan to bring your résumé, cover letter, and a list of references to the interview. You may also want to bring a portfolio of representative work. Leave behind coffee, chewing gum, and any other items that could be distractions.

Be Confident

Above all, interviewees should be confident and “courageous.” By doing so you make a strong first impression. As the saying goes, “There is never a second chance to make a first impression.”

Job Interview Types and Techniques

Every interview you participate in will be unique: The people you meet with, the interview setting, and the questions you’ll be asked will all be different from interview to interview.

The various factors that characterize any given interview can contribute to the sense of adventure and excitement you feel. But it’s also can normal to feel a little nervous about what lies ahead. With so many unknowns, how can you plan to “nail the interview” no matter what comes up?

A good strategy for planning is to anticipate the type of interview you may find yourself in. There are common formats for job interviews, described in detail, below. By knowing a bit more about each type and being aware of techniques that work for each, you can plan to be on your game no matter what form your interview takes.

Screening Interviews

Screening interviews might best be characterized as “weeding-out” interviews. They ordinarily take place over the phone or in another low-stakes environment in which the interviewer has maximum control over the amount of time the interview takes. Screening interviews are generally short because they glean only basic information about you. If you are scheduled to participate in a screening interview, you might safely assume that you have some competition for the job and that the company is using this strategy to whittle down the applicant pool. With this kind of interview, your goal is to win a face-to-face interview. For this first shot, though, prepare well and challenge yourself to shine. Try to stand out from the competition and be sure to follow up with a thank-you note.

Phone or Web Conference Interviews

If you are geographically separated from your prospective employer, you may be invited to participate in a phone interview or online interview, instead of meeting face-to-face. Technology, of course, is a good way to bridge distances. The fact that you’re not there in person doesn’t make it any less important to be fully prepared, though. In fact, you may wish to be all the more “on your toes” to compensate for the distance barrier. Make sure your equipment (phone, computer, Internet connection, etc.) is fully charged and works. If you’re at home for the interview, make sure the environment is quiet and distraction-free.  If the meeting is online, make sure your video background is pleasing and neutral, like a wall hanging or even a white wall.

One-on-One Interviews

The majority of job interviews are conducted in this format—just you and a single interviewer—likely with the manager you would report to and work with. The one-on-one format gives you both a chance to see how well you connect and how well your talents, skills, and personalities mesh. You can expect to be asked questions like “Why would you be good for this job?” and “Tell me about yourself.” Many interviewees prefer the one-on-one format because it allows them to spend in-depth time with the interviewer. Rapport can be built. As always, be very courteous and professional. Have handy a portfolio of your best work.

Panel Interviews

An efficient format for meeting a candidate is a panel interview, in which perhaps four to five coworkers meet at the same time with a single interviewee. The coworkers comprise the “search committee” or “search panel,” which may consist of different company representatives such as human resources, management, and staff. One advantage of this format for the committee is that meeting together gives them a common experience to reflect on afterward. In a panel interview, listen carefully to questions from each panelist, and try to connect fully with each questioner. Be sure to write down names and titles, so you can send individual thank-you notes after the interview.

Serial Interviews

Serial interviews are a combination of one-on-one meetings with a group of interviewers, typically conducted as a series of meetings staggered throughout the day. Ordinarily this type of interview is for higher-level jobs, when it’s important to meet at length with major stakeholders. If your interview process is designed this way, you will need to be ultraprepared, as you will be answering many in-depth questions. Stay alert.

Lunch Interviews

In some higher-level positions, candidates are taken to lunch or dinner, especially if this is a second interview (a “call back” interview). If this is you, count yourself lucky and be on your best behavior, because even if the lunch meeting is unstructured and informal, it’s still an official interview. Do not order an alcoholic beverage, and use your best table manners. You are not expected to pay or even to offer to pay. But, as always, you must send a thank-you note.

Group Interviews

Group interviews are comprised of several interviewees and perhaps only one or two interviewers who may make a presentation to the assembled group. This format allows an organization to quickly prescreen candidates. It also gives candidates a chance to quickly learn about the company. As with all interview formats, you are being observed. How do you behave with your group? Do you assume a leadership role? Are you quiet but attentive? What kind of personality is the company looking for? A group interview may reveal this.

For a summary of the interview formats we’ve just covered (and a few additional ones), take a look at the following video, Job Interview Guide—10 Different Types of Interviews in Today’s Modern World.

https://youtu.be/mMLQ7nSAyDQ

Activity: What Makes You a Great Fit?

Objectives:

Define your ideal job.

Identify the top three reasons why you are a great fit for this ideal job.

Directions:

Write a paragraph describing your ideal job. Imagine that you are already in this job. What is your job title and what are you responsible for executing? What is the name of the company or organization? What is its function?

Now identify the top three reasons why you are a great fit for this ideal job. What sets you apart from the competition? List the qualities, skills and values you have that match the job requirements. Provide examples to support your answers. Connect your values to the company’s values.

Summarize your answer.

Submit this assignment according to directions provided by your instructor.

Interview Questions

For most job candidates, the burning question is “What will I be asked?” There’s no way to anticipate every single question that may arise during an interview. It’s possible that, no matter how well prepared you are, you may get a question you just didn’t expect. But that’s okay. Do as much preparation as you can—which will build your confidence—and trust that the answers will come.

To help you reach that point of sureness and confidence, take time to review common interview questions. Think about your answers. Make notes, if that helps. And then conduct a practice interview with a friend, a family member, or a colleague. Speak your answers out loud. Below is a list of resources that contain common interview questions and good explanations/answers you might want to adopt.

| WEBSITE | DESCRIPTION
1 | 100 top job interview questions—be prepared for the interview (from Monster.com) | This site provides a comprehensive set of interview questions you might expect to be asked, categorized as basic interview questions, behavioral questions, salary questions, career development questions, and other kinds. Some of the listed questions provide comprehensive answers, too.

2
Interview Questions and Answers (from BigInterview)
This site provides text and video answers to the following questions: Tell me about yourself, describe your current position, why are you looking for a new job, what are your strengths, what is your greatest weakness, why do you want to work here, where do you see yourself in five years, why should we hire you, and do you have any questions for me?

3
Ten Tough Interview Questions and Ten Great Answers (from CollegeGrad)
This site explores some of the most difficult questions you will face in job interviews. The more open-ended the question, the greater the variation among answers. Once you have become practiced in your interviewing skills, you will find that you can use almost any question as a launching pad for a particular topic or compelling story.

Why Should We Hire You

From the Ohio State University Fisher College of Business Career Management Office, here is a video featuring representatives from recruiting companies offering advice for answering the question “Why should we hire you?” As you watch, make mental notes about how you would answer the question in an interview for a job you really want.

https://youtu.be/5NVYg2HNAdA

In closing, below is the final excerpt from the essay “It’s Like Online Dating,” by Jackie Vetrano. You’ll recall that the writer compares job hunting—including résumé creation and cover-letter writing—to online dating. In this last section, she concludes with a look at the job interview and compares it to a first date.

It’s Like Online Dating

The First Date—The Job Interview

After what may feel like forever, you hear back from the love of your life. Congratulations! In the online dating world, you may chat about common interests (because you wrote a stunning first message), but in the world of work, you’ll be asked to visit the organization for an interview.

I have been on many first dates, and whether it’s in a coffee shop or over dinner, the first face-to-face meeting is tremendously important. If someone I am meeting for the first time looks like they just came from the gym or rolled out of bed, my impression instantly changes. This same theory can be directly applied to your first date with your future employer. You have worked hard on your cover letter and résumé, and you should not taint the sparkling first impression you have created with the wrong choice in dress.

What you wear to a job interview may change based on the position you have applied for, but there are a set of basic rules that everyone should follow. Similar to meeting someone on a first date for coffee, you want to be comfortable. Some interviews may take place with multiple people in an organization, meaning you will be walking to different locations, sitting down, and potentially sweating from a broken air conditioning unit. Consider these factors when choosing your outfit for your interview, and if you’re concerned about being underdressed, remember to always dress a bit nicer than how you’d dress for the job itself.

There is nothing worse than sitting alone at a coffee shop waiting for a mystery date to show up. It’s uncomfortable and affects my overall first impression of whom I’m about to meet. Avoid making your mystery employer annoyed and waiting for you by leaving at least ten minutes earlier than you need to, just in case you get stuck in traffic. Arrive at least ten minutes early. The interview will start out much better if you are early rather than nervous and running late. Arriving early also gives you the time to have some coffee and review materials you may need for the interview. Coming on time to an interview or a first date shows you respect the time of the person you plan to meet.

On a first date, it is all about communication. Sometimes, there may be silences that cannot be filled or the person I have just met discloses their entire life story to me in less than an hour. If we cannot achieve a proper balance, there will not be a second date. Communicating effectively in a job interview is equally as important, especially if you want a job offer!

All of the rules of dating apply to how you should behave in a job interview. The interviewer will ask you questions, which means that you should look at them and focus on what is being asked. Your phone should be on silent (not even on vibrate), and hidden, to show that you are fully attentive and engaged in the conversation you are having. Much like having a conversation on a date, the answers to your questions should be clear and concise and stay on topic. The stories I tell on my first dates are more personal than what would be disclosed in a job interview, but the mindset is the same. You are building the impression that the organization has of you, so put your best foot forward through the comments you make.

To make that great impression, it is really important to heavily prepare and practice, even before you have an interview scheduled. By brainstorming answers to typical interview questions in a typed document or out loud, later during the interview you will easily remember the examples of your past experiences that demonstrate why you are best for the job. You can continue to update this list as you move through different jobs, finding better examples to each question to accurately describe your hard and soft skills.

This interview is as much a date for your future employer as it is for you. Come prepared with questions that you have about the company, the position, and anything else you are curious about. This is an opportunity for you to show off the research you’ve done on the organization and establish a better understanding of company culture, values, and work ethic. Without knowing these basics of the company or organization, what you thought was a match might only end in a tense breakup.

After your interview is over, you continue to have an opportunity to build on the positive impression that you’ve worked hard to form. Sending a follow up thank you note to each person you interviewed with will show your respect for the time the organization spent with you. These notes can be written and sent by mail or emailed, but either way should have a personal touch, commenting on a topic that was discussed in the interview. While sending a thank you note after a first date may sound a little strange, you might not get asked to a second interview without one!

It’s Official—The Job Offer

In the online dating world, it takes a few dates to determine if two people are a match. In the corporate world, you may have a one or two interviews to build a relationship. If your impression was positive and the organization believes you’re a match for the open position, you’ll be offered a job.

With a job offer also comes the salary for the position. It is important to know what a reasonable salary is for the position and location, which can be answered with a bit of research. One good place to look is the Bureau of Labor Statistics Web site. At this point, it is not uncommon to discuss your salary with your future employer, but be sure to do so in a polite way.

Online dating sites provide the means for millions of people to meet future partners, and the number of people who use online dating is so large that there are sure to be disappointments along the way. I have met people who I thought were compatible with me, but they did not feel the same, and vice versa. This happens frequently while searching for a job, which can be discouraging, but should not hinder you from continuing to search! There are a great number of opportunities, and sometimes all it takes is adjusting your filters or revising your résumé and cover letter. The cliché “there’s plenty of fish in the sea” may be true, but there is definitely a way for each person to start their career off.

—Jackie Vetrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

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Why Should We Hire You? How to Answer this Interview Question. Authored by: Fisher OSU. Located at: https://youtu.be/5NVYg2HNAdA. License: CC BY: Attribution

Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. License: CC BY: Attribution

5

Social Interaction and Diversity

17

Socializing

It is not hard for me to remember when I was in college. I loved many things about college life: I loved learning. I loved the camaraderie. And I loved football. —Joseph B. Wirthlin, businessman and religious leader

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define interdependence

Describe benefits of social interaction in college

Identify communication strategies for effective communication

Identify social conflicts and resolution strategies

Interdependence

When we explore relationships between people and groups of people, interdependence may well be one of the most meaningful words in the English language. It’s meaningful because it speaks to the importance of connecting with others and maintaining viable relationships.

Interdependence is defined as the mutual reliance, or mutual dependence, between two or more people or groups. “In an interdependent relationship, participants may be emotionally, economically, ecologically, and/or morally reliant on and responsible to each other.”[1]

An interdependent relationship is different from dependent and codependent relationships, though. In dependent relationships, some members are dependent while some are not (dependent people believe that they may not be able to achieve goals on their own). In codependent relationships, there is a sense that one must help others achieve their goals before pursuing one’s own. Contrast these relationships with interdependent relationships, in which the dependency, support, and gain is shared for the enrichment of all.

Interdependence in College

Interdependence is valuable in college because it contributes to your success as a student. When you feel comfortable with interdependence, for example, you may be more likely to ask a friend to help you with a class project. You may also be more likely to offer that same help to someone else. You may be more inclined to visit a faculty member during office hours. You may be more likely to attend the tutoring center for help with a difficult subject. Perhaps you would visit the career counseling center.

Overall, when you have a sense of interdependence, you cultivate support networks for yourself, and you help others, too. Interdependence is a win-win relationship.

The following table illustrates how interdependence can play a role in college life.

Interdependence Struggle Mode | Interdependence Success Mode
Students in struggle mode maintain a stance of dependence, co-dependence, or perhaps dogged independence, but not interdependence | Students in success mode develop relationships that support themselves and support other people, too
Students in struggle mode may avoid cooperating with others in situations where the common good could be achieved | Students in success mode develop networks of friends, family members, professionals, and others as a support team
Students in struggle mode may be reluctant to listen compassionately and attempt to understand the perspective of another person | Students in success mode actively and compassionately listen to others as an action of support; they demonstrate care and concern

Benefits of Social Interaction in College

If you were to ask fellow students what they think are the greatest benefits of social interaction in college, you would probably get a wide and colorful range of responses. How would you answer? Gaining good friends to “talk shop” with? Easing loneliness during difficult times? Having a group to join for Friday night fun? Indeed there are many, many benefits personal to each of us. But you may find, too, that there are certain benefits that are recognizable to all. These are highlighted below.

Form Deep and Lasting Relationships

When you socialize regularly in college, you tend to develop deep and lasting relationships. Even if some of the connections are shorter term, they can support you in different ways. For example, maybe a college friend in your same major is interested in starting a business with you. Or maybe a roommate helps you find a job. With a foundation of caring and concern, you are bound to find that your interdependent relationships fulfill you and others. It’s unlikely that students without interdependent relationships will experience these kinds of benefits.

Develop Good Study Habits

Study habits vary from student to student, but you can usually tell when studying and social life are at odds. Creative, organized students can combine studying and socializing for maximum advantage. For example, you might join a peer study group for a subject that you find difficult or even for a subject that you excel in. Either way, you and others gain from this relationship. There is mutual support not only for studying but for building social connections.

Minimize Stress

When you feel stressed, what are your “go-to” behaviors? It can be hard to reach out to others during times of stress, but socializing can be a great stress reliever. When you connect with others, you may find that life is a little easier and burdens can be shared and lightened. Helping is mutual. The key is to balance social activities with responsibilities.

Share Interests

In college, there are opportunities not only to explore a wide spectrum of interests but also to share them. In the process of exploring and developing your personal interests, you may join a club or perhaps work in a campus location that fits your interests. By connecting with others in a context of shared interests, everyone stands to gain because you expand knowledge and experience through social interaction.

Develop Social Skills

As you engage in social activities in college, you have the opportunity to observe how other people act in these situations. You may see behaviors you want to emulate or behaviors you wish to avoid. Throughout these observations and experiences, you can learn new ways to handle yourself in social situations. These skills will benefit you as you pursue a career and engage with people who interest and inspire you.

Communication Strategies for Effective Interactions

Socializing is generally considered a leisurely, enjoyable activity. But depending on your personality and attitude, it can also feel like work or provoke anxiety.

Whatever your natural inclinations are, you can learn how to communicate more effectively with others and foster supportive interactions. The “doors” of change to more effective interactions are threefold:

Examine your reservations

Engage with others

Expand your social circle

Examine Your Reservations

Everybody feels shy or insecure from time to time, but if you feel inhibited by your shyness, it may be because you’ve developed certain habits of thought that don’t serve your best interests anymore. Below are some strategies to help you examine reservations you may have about engaging in social activities.

Change ideas and thoughts: In our busy, high-octane lives, it’s not always easy to be aware of our thoughts, especially habitual thoughts that sometimes lurk behind the others. But if we make a point to listen to our thoughts, we may discover some that we’d like to change. Once you begin to recognize thoughts you’d like to change, you can train yourself in new directions. For example, you can start by closing your eyes and visualizing the negative thought. Let it slowly dissolve until it disappears completely.

Turn a negative thought into a constructive thought: If you find yourself thinking that you’re not suited to joining a group that interests you, turn this thought into a positive one by saying, “I am an interesting person and I have a lot to offer and share.” This affirmation is true! You might want to come up with three or more replacement thoughts.

Acknowledge that everyone is unique: Everybody experiences high and low points in life. But even if we cannot change external circumstances, we can change our perceptions and attitudes. A happy attitude will always serve you well. “Most people are about as happy as they make up their minds to be.” —Abraham Lincoln

Engage with Others

Smile: One of the easiest ways to compel yourself into socializing is to smile. Smiling can instantly make you feel more positive. It also draws other people to you.

Use welcoming body language: If you are at a social gathering, be aware of your body language. Does it signal that you are approachable? Make eye contact with people, give them a small wave or a nod, and look in front of you instead of at your feet or at the floor. When you look happy and ready to talk, people are more likely to come up to you.

Put your phone away: If you look busy, people won’t want to interrupt you. Your body language should say that you are ready to interact.

Be genuine: Whether you are talking to an old friend or somebody you have just met, show genuine interest in the conversation. Being fully engaged shows that you are compassionate and makes for more stimulating and fulfilling interactions with others.

Keep conversations balanced: Ask people questions about themselves. Show that you care by asking others to share.

Be open-minded: The old adage “Don’t judge a book by its cover” is relevant here. Someone you’re ambivalent about could end up being your best friend. Give yourself a chance to get to know others. What interests might you share?

Expand Your Social Circle

Offer invitations: As you reach out to others, others will be more likely to reciprocate and reach out to you. Call old friends that you haven’t seen in a while and set up a time to get together. Invite a friend to the movies, a baseball game, a concert, or other activity. Consider having a party and telling your friends to bring guests.

Accept more invitations: Granted, there are only so many hours in the day for socializing. But if you’re in the habit of turning down invitations, try to make a point to accept some—even if the invitation is to attend something out of your comfort zone. You might even want to make a habit of arbitrarily saying yes three times for every one time you say no.

Join a club or group with like-minded people: Making new friends and expanding one’s social network can be accomplished by joining a club or group. You may even want to consider joining a group focused on something different from what you’re used to.

Meet mutual friends: Meeting friends of friends is one of the easiest ways to meet new people. Try to view every person you meet in your life as a doorway into a new social circle.

Look for unique opportunities to be social: This can be as simple as starting a conversation with a checkout clerk—”Hey, how’s your day going?”—instead of remaining quiet.

All in all, make your social life one of your top priorities. Everyone needs some alone time, too, but it’s important to stay connected. Keeping those connections alive contributes to healthy interdependence and personal success.

Activity: Reflections on Self-Confidence

Objective

Identify personal traits that give you self-confidence and use them as a springboard to social interaction

Directions:

Make a list of your positive qualities. Acknowledge your accomplishments, talents, and good nature. Ask yourself the following questions to get you started:

What have I done in the past year that I am proud of?

What is my proudest accomplishment of all time?

What unique talents do I have?

What do people tend to compliment me for?

What positive impact have I had on other people’s lives?

Draft your responses as a journal entry, or a diary entry, or even a poem or a brief essay.

Submit your writing to a friend, a family member, or a social network. Reach out. Be social.

Social Conflict Situations and Resolution Strategies

Now that you know more about communication strategies for interacting in college, you may find it helpful to identify common situations that can evoke anxiety or social problems and conflict.

Campus Parties and Hookups

Many college students report that they have social limits not shared by their some of their friends. For example, you may join a group of friends to attend a party off-campus where a lot of drinking is taking place, along with other activities you are not comfortable with. If this kind of situation clashes with your personal, cultural, or religious values, you may feel best leaving the event and seeking out other social settings in the future. Angle your social interests toward people and situations that are compatible with your values and preferences.

Academic Problems

When you’re in college, it’s not unusual hit a rough patch and find yourself struggling academically, and such challenges can have an impact on your social life. If you may find yourself in this situation—and especially if it includes other stressors, such as employment difficulties, responsibilities for family member, of financial problems—you may benefit from slowing down and getting help. Your college or university has support systems in place to help you. Take advantage of resources such as the tutoring center, counseling center, and academic advisers to help you restore your social life to a balanced state.

Homesickness

Homesickness is a common among college freshman, but it can persist in later college years, too. During this time, one may not feel up to being fully sociable or outgoing, especially if depression is involved. In fact, depression and social isolation tend to go together. As unappealing as it may feel, one of the best antidotes to homesickness (and depression, too,) is try to make new social connections. Try to appreciate your new environment and know that you are not alone in feeling a bit out of place and alone. Many potential new friends may be sharing the same feeling and hoping to connect with someone just like you. Give yourself time to acclimate, but reach out as soon as possible and take an active role in building your new college life.

Too Much Social Networking

It’s pretty obvious that social media is an integral part of the social landscape in college. From tweeting about a football game, to posting an album on Facebook about your spring break, to beefing up your LinkedIn profile before a job hunt, to Instagramming picture of party hijinks, social networking is everywhere in college, and it’s likely to say. The following video gives an insider look at why college students use social media.

https://youtu.be/12P2H8gjcNk

Despite the many benefits, as you know, social networking can be a major distraction. If social networking is getting in the way of any part of your college success—whether its social or academic success—take a break and disconnect for a while.

Here are ten reasons why you may wish to step away from social media, at least temporarily: When It’s Time to Unplug—10 Reasons Why Too Much Social Media Is Bad for You

With a Little Help from My Friends

In a 2014 research study by the University of California-Los Angeles (the American Freshman Survey), 153,000 full-time, first-year students at more than 200 four-year public and private institutions were surveyed. Only 18 percent of those surveyed said they spend more than 16 hours weekly with friends. Compare this data point with a similar survey conducted in 1987: in that year, two-thirds of surveyed students said they spent more than 16 hours each week socializing.

What accounts for this change? Are academic pursuits now taking a larger percentage of students’ time? Is socializing being replaced by part-time jobs? And what is the impact of less socializing? You can read about the survey results to find out more: College Freshmen Socialize Less, Feel Depressed More.

For now, keep in mind the many benefits of socializing in college. It’s possible to have a healthy social life that’s balanced with other responsibilities.

The following essay, “With a Little Help from My Friends,” is an essay about the importance of friends and friendships in college.

With a Little Help from My Friends

We often hear about the importance of relationships: a necessary aspect of integration in society. Unfortunately, we rarely follow that advice. Perhaps we live an excessively busy life or we already have a close group of friends and do not feel compelled to meet new people. I have come to learn through my time in college that neglecting to cultivate new relationships is detrimental to living a happy and successful life. I would like to offer this piece of advice: no matter how difficult it seems at first, always try to make new friends. College is not always easy. However, having friends makes it much easier. Friends are a vital part of your life that can expose you to new subjects, cultures, and experiences while giving you the opportunity to do the same for them.

At my college, there was a small space that the students called “the bat cave.” It was by no means a first-class lounge, but it was a place where friends could help others better understand their course material. We gave it this peculiar nickname because it was our place to get together and conquer villains one after another. These were not your everyday super villains, however. Sometimes they were complicated homework assignments and other times they were difficult exams. No matter the challenge, someone was always willing to help. I went to the bat cave several times and every visit I learned something new. Professors and teaching assistants could not relate to us like our friends could. That made a difference, because nothing was better than being taught by a friend.

Friends are not only an essential support for your time in school, but also can be integral in helping realize post-college aspirations. During a visit to New York City, I visited the offices of the company Spotify. After touring their facilities I had the opportunity to talk to some of the employees. One man I talked with was a senior employee who worked at Microsoft prior to joining Spotify’s team. Our conversation stuck in my head because he gave a very striking piece of advice: make friends. It never truly occurred to me that the friends you make in college could impact your future in the workforce. They could be partners in potential business ventures or help you land your dream job. In any case, having strong connections with friends can undoubtedly make a major difference in your career.

The best part of making new friends, however, is trading life experiences, skills, and interests with them. For a year and a half before my final semester of college, I studied abroad in the United States. My family was concerned because typically, students search for first jobs prior to graduation. I, on the other hand, had no trepidations about going because I knew that I would have countless, exciting learning experiences. I can say today, without a doubt, that my trip was a great decision. I met incredible people, and through knowing them, I grew and changed. I also know that I was a positive feature in the lives of my new friends. The greatest thing that I learned was that meeting different people with different backgrounds, histories, perspectives, or even different musical tastes, inevitably changes you and lets you see the world in an entirely different way. You no longer see the world as simply a big, blue sphere with freezing winters or sizzling summers (although that certainly seems to be the case up North!), but as a place in which people like you live, learn, and love.

Going to college may seem hard, but it does not need to be. I have learned that the way I perceive my life as a student completely relies upon my relationships with my friends. They are not only the people that I like to spend time with, but also are essential in my growth and development as a human being. The pages in this book include insights from others just like you and me. They want to help you get through the common struggles of college with confidence and perseverance. Consider them your most most recent new friends. I truly hope that this inspires you in your quest for a great future.

—Paulo Fernandes (State University of New York), Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdependence

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Socializing. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of two college students. Authored by: CollegeDegrees360. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/cEJAgJ. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Interdependence. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdependence. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

How to Become a More Social Person. Provided by: WikiHow. Located at: http://www.wikihow.com/Become-a-More-Social-Person. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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The True Reasons College Students Use Social Media. Authored by: Luke Carmichael. Located at: https://youtu.be/12P2H8gjcNk. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

18

Diversity and Accessibility

Diversity: the art of thinking independently together. —Malcolm Forbes, entrepreneur, founder of Forbes magazine

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define diversity and identify factors that define a diverse group

Differentiate between surface diversity and deep diversity, and explain what relationships exist between the two

Explore the positive effects of diversity in an educational setting

Define accessibility, and identify implications of accessibility on campus and in communities

What Is Diversity?

There are few words in the English language that have more diverse interpretations than diversity. What does diversity mean? Better yet—what does diversity mean to you? And what does it mean to your best friend, your teacher, your parents, your religious leader, or the person standing behind you in a grocery store?

For each of us, diversity has unique meaning. Below are a few of the many definitions offered by college students at a 2010 conference on the topic of diversity. Which of these definitions rings out to you as most accurate and thoughtful? Which definitions could use some embellishment or clarification, in your opinion?

Diversity is a group of people who are different in the same place.

Diversity to me is the ability for differences to coexist together, with some type of mutual understanding or acceptance present. Acceptance of different viewpoints is key.

Tolerance of thought, ideas, people with differing viewpoints, backgrounds, and life experiences.

Anything that sets one individual apart from another.

People with different opinions, backgrounds (degrees and social experience), religious beliefs, political beliefs, sexual orientations, heritage, and life experience.

Dissimilar

Having a multitude of people from different backgrounds and cultures together in the same environment working for the same goals.

Difference in students’ background, especially race and gender.

Differences in characteristics of humans.

Diversity is a satisfying mix of ideas, cultures, races, genders, economic statuses and other characteristics necessary for promoting growth and learning among a group.

Diversity is the immersion and comprehensive integration of various cultures, experiences, and people.

Heterogeneity brings about opportunities to share, learn and grow from the journeys of others. Without it, limitations arise and knowledge is gained in the absence of understanding.

Diversity is not tolerance for difference but inclusion of those who are not the majority. It should not be measured as a count or a fraction—that is somehow demeaning. Success at maintaining diversity would be when we no longer ask if we are diverse enough, because it has become the norm, not remarkable.[1]

Diversity means different things to different people, and it can be understood differently in different environments. In the context of your college experience, diversity generally refers to people around you who differ by race, culture, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, abilities, opinions, political views, and in other ways. When it comes to diversity on the college campus, we also think about how groups interact with one another, given their differences (even if they’re just perceived differences.) How do diverse populations experience and explore their relationships?

“More and more organizations define diversity really broadly,” says Eric Peterson, who works on diversity issues for the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM). “Really, it’s any way any group of people can differ significantly from another group of people—appearance, sexual orientation, veteran status, your level in the organization. It has moved far beyond the legally protected categories that we’ve always looked at.”[2]

The following video from Georgetown University explores diversity on its campus. It highlights the passion and excitement students can feel about diversity and the many ways in which diverse groups can support one another.

https://youtu.be/dLZJoHHpjWc

Surface Diversity and Deep Diversity

Surface diversity and deep diversity are categories of personal attributes—or differences in attributes—that people perceive to exist between people or groups of people.

Surface-level diversity refers to differences you can generally observe in others, like ethnicity, race, gender, age, culture, language, disability, etc. You can quickly and easily observe these features in a person. And people often do just that, making subtle judgments at the same time, which can lead to bias or discrimination. For example, if a teacher believes that older students perform better than younger students, she may give slightly higher grades to the older students than the younger students. This bias is based on perception of the attribute of age, which is surface-level diversity.

Deep-level diversity, on the other hand, reflects differences that are less visible, like personality, attitude, beliefs, and values. These attributes are generally communicated verbally and nonverbally, so they are not easily noticeable or measurable. You may not detect deep-level diversity in a classmate, for example, until you get to know him or her, at which point you may find that you are either comfortable with these deeper character levels, or perhaps not. But once you gain this deeper level of awareness, you may focus less on surface diversity. For example: At the beginning of a term, a classmate belonging to a minority ethnic group, whose native language is not English (surface diversity), may be treated differently by fellow classmates in another ethnic group. But as the term gets under way, classmates begin discovering the person’s values and beliefs (deep-level diversity), which they find they are comfortable with. The surface-level attributes of language and perhaps skin color become more “transparent” (less noticeable) as comfort is gained with deep-level attributes.

The following video is a quick summary of the differences between surface-level and deep-level diversity.

https://youtu.be/4QsF8_IwmXs

Positive Effects of Diversity in an Educational Setting

Why does diversity matter in college? It matters because when you are exposed to new ideas, viewpoints, customs, and perspectives—which invariably happens when you come in contact with diverse groups of people—you expand your frame of reference for understanding the world. Your thinking becomes more open and global. You become comfortable working and interacting with people of all nationalities. You gain a new knowledge base as you learn from people who are different from yourself. You think “harder” and more creatively. You perceive in new ways, seeing issues and problems from new angles. You can absorb and consider a wider range of options, and your values may be enriched. In short, it contributes to your education.

Consider the following facts about diversity in the United States:

More than half of all U.S. babies today are people of color, and by 2050 the U.S. will have no clear racial or ethnic majority. As communities of color are tomorrow’s leaders, college campuses play a major role in helping prepare these leaders.

But in 2009, while 28 percent of Americans older than 25 years of age had a four-year college degree, only 17 percent of African Americans and 13 percent of Hispanics had a four-year degree. More must be done to adequately educate the population and help prepare students to enter the workforce.

Today, people of color make up about 36 percent of the workforce (roughly one in three workers). But by 2050, half the workforce (one in two workers) will be a person of color. Again, college campuses can help navigate these changes.[3]

All in all, diversity brings richness to relationships on campus and off campus, and it further prepares college students to thrive and work in a multicultural world. Diversity is fast becoming America’s middle name.

Activity: Cultural Sensitivity and Inclusivity in Practice

Objective

Identify ways in which you can make diversity more personal

Instructions

This activity will help you examine ways in which you can develop your awareness of and commitment to diversity on campus. Answer the following questions to the best of your ability:

What are my plans for expanding myself personally and intellectually in college?

What kind of community will help me expand most fully, with diversity as a factor in my expansion?

What are my comfort zones, and how might I expand them to connect more diversely?

Do I want to be challenged by new viewpoints, or will I feel more comfortable connecting with people who are like me?

What are my biggest questions about diversity?

Write several paragraphs reflecting on the questions above.

Submit this assignment according to directions from your instructor.

Consider the following strategies to help you answer the questions:

Examine extracurricular activities. Can you get involved with clubs or organizations that promote and expand diversity?

Review your college’s curriculum. In what ways does it reflect diversity? Does it have departments and courses on historically unrepresented peoples, e.g., cultural and ethnic studies, and gender and sexuality studies. Look for study-abroad programs, as well.

Read your college’s mission statement. Read the mission statement of other colleges. How do they match up with your values and beliefs? How do they align with the value of diversity?

Inquire with friends, faculty, colleagues, family. Be open about diversity. What does it mean to others? What positive effects has it had on them? Ask people about diversity.

Research can help. You might consult college literature, Web sites, resource centers and organizations on campus, etc.

Accessibility and Diversity on Campus

The idea of “accessibility” is an important force of change on college campuses today. Accessibility is about making education accessible to all, and and it’s particularly focused on providing educational support to a diverse group of students, faculty, and staff with disabilities. According to the American with Disabilities Act, you can be considered disabled if you meet one of the following criteria:

You have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, such as seeing, hearing, walking, learning, and others.

You must have a history of such impairment.

Others perceive that you have such impairment.

If you meet one of these criteria, you have special legal rights to certain accommodations on your campus. These accommodations may include, but are not limited to, the following:

Academic accommodations, like alternate format for print materials, classroom captioning, arranging for priority registration, reducing a course load, substituting one course for another, providing note takers, recording devices, sign language interpreters, a TTY in your dorm room, and equipping school computers with screen-reading, voice recognition, or other adaptive software or hardware.

Exam accommodations, like extended time on exams

Financial support and assistance

Priority access to housing

Transportation and access, like Wheelchair-accessible community shuttles

Assistive technologies and Web-accessibility accommodations are critical in today’s technology-driven economy and society. The following are some examples of assistive technologies are the following:

Software like Dragon Naturally Speaking, Kurzweil, Zoom Text, CCTV Magnifier, Inspiration Software

Computer input devices, like keyboards, electronic pointing devices, sip-and-puff systems, wands and sticks, joysticks, trackballs, and touch screens

Other Web-accessibility aids, like screen readers, screen enlargers, and screen magnifiers, speech recognition or voice recognition programs, and Text-to-Speech (TTS) or speech synthesizers

Students in the following video share some of their experiences with the Web accessibility.

https://youtu.be/BEFgnYktC7U

For more information about Web accessibility, visit http://webaim.org/.

Why So Many Questions?

The following essay about experiences of diversity in college is by Fatima Rodriguez Johnson (State University of New York). Even though at first the writer felt like an ethnic outsider at college, she grew in understanding the importance of diversity of campus and of speaking openly and honestly about connecting with diverse cultures.

Why So Many Questions?

I chose to attend a small liberal arts college. The campus was predominately white and was nestled in a wealthy suburb among beautiful trees and landscaped lawns. My stepfather and I pulled into the parking lot and followed the path to my residence hall. The looks we received from most of the families made me feel like everyone knew we didn’t belong. But, he and I greeted all we encountered, smiling and saying, “Hello.” Once I was unpacked and settled into my residence hall, he gave me a hug and said, “Good luck.” I wasn’t sure if he meant good luck with classes or good luck with meeting new friends, but I heard a weight in his voice. He was worried. Had he and my mother prepared me for what was ahead?

With excitement, I greeted my roommate who I had already met through the summer Higher Educational Opportunity Program (HEOP). She and I were very happy to see each other. After decorating and organizing our room, we set out to meet new people. We went to every room introducing ourselves. We were pretty sure no one would forget us; it would be hard to miss the only Black and Latina girls whose room was next to the pay phone (yes, in my day each floor shared one pay phone).

Everyone on our floor was nice and we often hung out in each other’s rooms. And like some of you, we answered some of those annoying questions:

Why does your perm make your hair straight when ours makes our hair curly?

How did your hair grow so long (whenever we had weave braids)?

Why don’t you wash your hair everyday (the most intriguing question of all)?

We were also asked questions that made us angry:

Did you grow up with your father?

Aren’t you scared to take public transportation?

Have you ever seen anyone get shot (because we both lived in the inner city)?

It was those questions that, depending on the day and what kind of mood we were in, made a fellow student either walk away with a better understanding of who we were as Black and Latina women or made a fellow student walk away red and confused. I guess that’s why my stepfather said, “Good luck.” He knew that I was living in a community where I would stand out—where I would have to explain who I was. Some days I was really good at answering those questions and some days I was not. I learned the questions were not the problem; it was not asking that was troubling.

My roommate and I put forth a lot of effort to fit in with the community—we spent time hanging out with our peers, we ate together almost every evening in the dining hall, and we participated in student organizations. We were invited to join the German Club, and were the only students of color there. In doing all these things we made ourselves approachable. Our peers became comfortable around us and trusted us.

Although my peers and I all had similar college stresses (tests, papers, projects, etc.) my roommate and I also had become a student resource for diversity. Not because we wanted to, but because we had too. There were very few students of color on campus, and I think students really wanted to learn about people different from themselves. It was a responsibility that we had accepted. The director of HEOP would often remind us that for many students, college was the first opportunity they had to ask these types of questions. He said we would learn to discern when people were really interested in learning about our differences or insulting us. If someone was interested in insulting us, there was no need to respond at all.

Although I transferred to another college at the end of my sophomore year, during those two years I learned a great deal about having honest conversations. Taking part in honest conversations challenged my notions of the world and how I viewed people from all walks of life (race, class, sexual orientation, ability, etc.). Those late nights studying or walks to the student center were when many of us listened to each other’s stories.

My advice is to take time to examine your attitudes and perceptions of people different from yourself, put yourself in situations that will challenge your assumptions, and lastly, when you make a mistake do not get discouraged. Keep trying. It’s easy to stay where we are comfortable. College is such a wonderful experience. Take it all in, and I am sure you will enjoy it!

—Fatima Rodriguez Johnson, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

https://sph.unc.edu/files/2013/07/define_diversity.pdf

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122327104

"10 Reasons Why We Need Diversity on College Campuses." Center for American Progress. 2016. Web. 2 Feb 2016.

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Image of three people. Authored by: Oregon Department of Transportation. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/gHr6bw. License: CC BY: Attribution

Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Living and Learning Together. Provided by: Georgetown University. Located at: https://youtu.be/dLZJoHHpjWc. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Surface Level vs. Deep Level Diversity. Authored by: Ken Harris. Located at: https://youtu.be/4QsF8_IwmXs. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Experiences of Students with Disabilities. Authored by: Jared Smith. Located at: https://youtu.be/BEFgnYktC7U. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

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Students with Disabilities Preparing for Postsecondary Education. Authored by: Office for Civil Rights. Provided by: US Department of Education. Located at: http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/transition.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

19

Campus and Student Life

I even lived on campus to get the college experience. I had five roommates and I still keep in touch with them while I’m on the road. —Tatyana Ali, actress, model, and R&B singer

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the variety of organized groups available on campus for both resident and nonresident students

Identify resources for learning more about campus organizations

Describe the benefits of participating in student life

Student Life

Whether your campus is small, tall, grande, or venti, you are probably amazed by the array of institutionally supported student activities available for your enrichment and enjoyment. Perhaps your biggest challenge is deciding how much extra time you have after studying and which added activities yield the greatest reward.

Below are two videos that give a sample of campus life at two different types of colleges. The first is from a large state institution—the University of Maryland. The second is from a smaller, private college—Baldwin Wallace University. Regardless, though, of where your institution fits on the spectrum of size, or how many activities, clubs, and organizations your institution offers, it’s very important for you to be able to explore cocurricular interests—for learning, enjoyment, and personal satisfaction. Student life should always be satisfying and rewarding to students, as well as to alumni, faculty, staff, and community members. Together, these groups are an institution’s lifeblood.

University of Maryland

https://youtu.be/Voic2aRp6gg

Baldwin Wallace

https://youtu.be/8swn3nKF6zk

Organized Groups on Campus

Student Organizations

Colleges have an abundance of student organizations. Some examples you may be familiar with are the Hillel Student Organization for enriching the lives of Jewish students, the Chess Club, and Model United Nations. Larger institutions may have hundreds of such organizations. Here is a lengthy and exciting list of student organizations at the University of Maryland Baltimore County.

Generally, an organization is created and run by current students, and it’s sponsored by an executive officer, dean, or director of a major academic or operational unit. An organization must also have a mission that’s consistent with the mission of the college and sponsor. It might also collect dues from members, but in many cases, membership is free.

To link up with a student organization, you may not need to do much more than take stock of your interests. What do you love to do? In a later section, you’ll find a list of ways to learn about student organizations at your institution. If you find that your college doesn’t have an organization that speaks to your particular interests, you might consider starting one.

Fraternities and Sororities

Fraternities and sororities are social organizations at colleges and universities. The terms “Greek letter organization” (“GLO”) and “Greek life” are often used to describe fraternities and sororities. Generally, you obtain membership while you are an undergraduate, but your membership continues for life. Most Greek organizations have five shared elements: secrecy, single-sex membership, rushing and pledging to select new members, occupancy in a shared residence, and identification with Greek letters. Fraternities and sororities also engage in philanthropic activities, and they often host parties and other events that may be popular across campus.

Diversity and Multiculturalism

Diversity and multiculturalism are indeed critical pursuits not just on college campuses but in communities, businesses, and organizations around the world. If you are interested in expanding and promoting awareness of this issues on campus and further afield, you can seek opportunities at your college for starters. You will likely find informal gatherings, presentations, campus-wide events, individual students and classes focused on creating diverse, multicultural, and inclusive communities. As an example, here is a list of student clubs relating to culture and diversity at Goucher College.

Civic Engagement and Leadership

Most colleges have many opportunities for you to learn about and prepare for civic engagement and leadership on campus and in the wider community. What is civic engagement? It’s your involvement in protecting and promoting a diverse and democratic society—and clearly, leadership is an important part of this. Student organizations and activities related to these pursuits may be student government associations, leadership courses and retreats, social change projects, service opportunities, social innovation initiatives, and many others.

Service and Volunteerism

If you are like many new college students, you probably already have experience volunteering. It may have been part of your high school requirements. Or perhaps you engaged in volunteering as part of a faith organization or as part of a community fundraising effort. Any of your volunteering can continue in college, too, as your institution will have many special and meaningful ways to stay involved, work on social problems, and contribute to a better world. Service and volunteer efforts may include philanthropy, activism, social entrepreneurship, advocacy, and direct service.[1]

Student Activities

On any college campus, satellite center, or virtual space, students may be involved in activities around the clock on any given day. These activities may include student organization activities as well as special presentations, meetings, performing arts events, sporting events, intramurals, recreational activities, local community activities, holiday events, commemorative events, and so on.

You are heartily encouraged to pursue any interests that enhance your education and enrich your student experience. Your participation can expand your horizons, deepen your interests, and connect you with new people.

Resources for Learning About Campus Organizations

It can seem overwhelming to learn about all the activities, events, clubs, organizations, athletics, performing arts, etc. on campus. Sometimes you may need to dig a little, too. The following resources are a good place to start:

Your institution’s Web site: Try a keywords search at your college’s Web site, using any of the following: student life, college life, student organizations, clubs, student activities office, student services, special events, events calendar, performing arts calendar, athletics calendar, etc.

Email: Keep alert to the many email messages you receive from campus offices and organizations. They publicize all kinds of activities and opportunities for you to engage with campus and student life.

Other technology-based support services: Take advantage of other technology-based student support services if they are available. For example, some colleges use an online platform that connects student organizations and allows them to reach out to prospective new members. With this service, you could access a list of student organizations to see which ones you might like to join and see what events are ahead. You can also can search for organizations based on categories or interests.

Social media: Most institutions keep up-to-date information on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and more. Individual groups on campus may also have separate social media presences that you can locate through the institution’s offerings.

Bulletin boards: Take a look at bulletin boards as you pass through hallways in academic buildings, dining halls, sports facilities, dormitories, even local service centers, and retail stores. You can often find fliers with event details and contact information.

Friends: Keep a pulse on what others are doing in their spare time. This is also a good way to make new friends and align yourself with others who have similar interests.

Campus offices for social functions: Make a point to visit the student activities office or the student affairs office. Both often have physical spaces for student organizations.

Campus offices for academic functions: Inquire with your academic adviser. He or she will likely be knowledgeable about campus organizations related to your interests and may know about local, regional and national organizations, too.

Activity: Campus and Community Activities

This project involves attending two campus and/or community culture activities (not athletic events), collecting mementos from each event, and displaying evidence of your experience via social media.

Objectives

Attend campus activities/events to heighten a sense of connection with your institution

Use social media to display artifacts from these events

Directions

Choose two activities to attend (athletic events not included).

Collect mementos (such as a ticket stub, a program, take pictures and/or video).

Digitally archive them (for example, take a digital picture of the ticket stub).

Create a digital presentation about your two activities. For each activity, include the following:

what, when, and where the activity occurred

why you chose the activity

uploads of the related mementos

what you learned from the experience

Follow your instructor’s directions for submitting this activity.

Benefits of Participating in Student Life

How is it that becoming fully involved in student life can have such a positive impact on student satisfaction and academic success?

The National Survey of Student Engagement—a survey measuring student involvement in academic and cocurricular activities—shows that student success is directly linked to student involvement in the institution. In fact, survey results show that the higher the level of student involvement is, the higher student grades are and the more likely students are to reenroll the next semester. All of this seems to translate to satisfaction. The following lists some of the many benefits and rewards that result from active participation in campus and student life.

Personal interests are tapped: Cocurricular programs and activities encourage students to explore personal interests and passions. As students pursue these interests, they learn more about their strengths and possible career paths. These discoveries can be lasting and life-changing.

A portfolio of experience develops: Experience with just about any aspect of college life may be relevant to a prospective employer. Is freshman year too soon to be thinking about résumés? Definitely not! If you gain leadership experience in a club, for example, be sure to document what you did so you can refer back to it (you might want to keep track of your activities and experiences in a journal, for instance).

Fun leads to good feelings: Students typically pursue cocurricular activities because the activities are enjoyable and personally rewarding. Having fun is also a good way to balance the stress of meeting academic deadlines and studying intensely.

Social connections grow: When students are involved in cocurricular activities, they usually interact with others, which means meeting new people, developing social skills, and being a part of a community. It’s always good to have friends who share your interests and to develop these relationships over time.

Awareness of diversity expands: The multicultural nature of American society is increasingly reflected and celebrated on college campuses today. You will see this not only in the classroom but also in the cocurricular activities, clubs, organizations, and events. For example, your college might have a Black Student Union, an Asian Pacific Student Union, a Japanese Student Association, a Chinese Student Association, and many others. Having access to these resources gives students the opportunity to explore different cultures and prepare to live, work, and thrive in a vibrantly diverse world.

Self-esteem grows: When students pursue their special interests through cocurricular activities, it can be a real boost to self-esteem. Academic achievement can certainly be a source of affirmation and satisfaction, but it’s nice to have additional activities that validate your special contributions in other ways.

All in all, being involved in the campus community is vital to every student, and it’s vital to the college, too. It’s a symbiotic relationship that serves everyone well.

The key to getting the most out of college is to take advantage of as many facets of student life as possible while still keeping up with your academic commitments. That’s pretty obvious, right? What may be less obvious is that focusing exclusively on your academic work and not getting involved in any of the rich and diverse cocurricular activities on campus can come at a real price and even hamper your success.

"Service and Volunteerism." Student Life: Try Something New. UMBC. n.d. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

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College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Walk a Mile in Her Shoes. Provided by: University of Central Arkansas. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ucentralarkansas/6927650978/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

Fraternities and Sororities. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternities_and_sororities. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Campus and Community Activities. Authored by: Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by: Chadron State College. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Campus Activities. Authored by: baldwinwallace. Located at: https://youtu.be/8swn3nKF6zk. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

6

Thinking and Analysis

20

Patterns of Thought

It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it. —Aristotle, Greek philosopher

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify different patterns of thought, such as those found in Bloom’s taxonomy

Discuss the relationship of each thought pattern to education

What Is Thought?

“Cogito ergo sum.” This famous Latin phrase comes from French philosopher René Descartes in the early 1600s. Translated into English, it means “I think, therefore I am.” It’s actually a profound philosophical idea, and people have argued about it for centuries: we exist, and we are aware that we exist, because we think. Without thought or the ability to think, we don’t exist. Do you agree? Even if you think Descartes got it wrong, most would say that thought is intimately connected to being human and that, as humans, we are all thinking beings.

What, then, are thinking and thought? Below are some basic working definitions:

Thinking is the mental process you use to form associations and models of the world. When you think, you manipulate information to form concepts, to engage in problem-solving, to reason, and to make decisions.

Thought can be described as the act of thinking that produces thoughts, which arise as ideas, images, sounds, or even emotions.

Many great thinkers and theorists have dedicated their lives to the study of thought, trying to understand exactly how humans receive, absorb, generate, and transmit thought—and also how they learn. One such thinker was Benjamin Bloom, an American educational psychologist who was particularly interested how people learn. In 1956, Dr. Bloom chaired a committee of educators that developed and classified a set of learning objectives, which came to be known as Bloom’s taxonomy. This classification system has been updated a little since it was first developed, but it remains important for both students and teachers in helping to understand the skills and structures involved in learning.

What Are Learning Objectives?

What exactly are learning objectives? You may have already noticed them—like the ones at the top of this page—throughout this course. Learning objectives are goals that specify what someone will know, care about, or be able to do as a result of a learning experience. These learning skills can be divided into three main categories or “domains”: the cognitive domain (what you should know), the affective domain (what you should care about), and the psychomotor domain (what you should be able to do).

Since this section of the course is focused on patterns of thought, we’ll start with the cognitive domain of learning.

The Cognitive Domain of Learning

The cognitive domain of learning is divided into six main learning-skill levels, or learning-skill stages, which are arranged hierarchically—moving from the simplest of functions like remembering and understanding, to more complex learning skills, like applying and analyzing, to the most complex skills—evaluating and creating. The lower levels are more straightforward and fundamental, and the higher levels are more sophisticated.[1] See Figure 1, below.

Figure 1

The following table describes the six main skill sets within the cognitive domain.

MAIN SKILL LEVELS WITHIN THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN | DESCRIPTION | EXAMPLES OF RELATED LEARNING SKILLS (specific actions related to the skill set)

Remembering

When you are skilled in remembering, you can recognize or recall knowledge you’ve already gained, and you can use it to produce or retrieve or recite definitions, facts, and lists.

Remembering may be how you studied in grade school or high school, but college will require you to do more with the information.

identify · relate · list ·  define · recall · memorize · repeat · record · name

Understanding

Understanding is the ability to grasp or construct meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages.

Each college course will introduce you to new concepts, terms, processes, and functions. Once you gain a firm understanding of new information, you’ll find it easier, perhaps later, to comprehend how or why something works.

restate · locate · report · recognize · explain · express · identify · discuss · describe · discuss · review · infer · illustrate · interpret · draw · represent · differentiate · conclude

Applying

When you apply, you use learned material (or you implement the material) in new and concrete situations.

In college you will be tested or assessed on what you’ve learned in the previous levels. You will be asked to solve problems in new situations by applying understanding in new ways. You may need to relate abstract ideas to practical situations.

apply · relate · develop · translate · use · operate · organize · employ · restructure · interpret · demonstrate · illustrate · practice · calculate · show · exhibit · dramatize

Analyzing

When you analyze, you have the ability to break down or distinguish the parts of material into its components, so that its organizational structure may be better understood.

At this level, you will have a clearer sense that you comprehend the content well. You will be able to answer questions such as what if, or why, or how something would work.

analyze · compare · probe · inquire · examine · contrast · categorize · differentiate · contrast · investigate · detect · survey · classify · deduce · experiment · scrutinize · discover · inspect · dissect · discriminate · separate

Evaluating | With skills in evaluating, you are able to judge, check, and even critique the value of material for a given purpose. At this level in college you will be able to think critically, Your understanding of a concept or discipline will be profound. You may need to present and defend opinions. | judge · assess · compare · evaluate · conclude · measure · deduce · argue · decide · choose · rate · select · estimate · validate · consider · appraise · value · criticize · infer

Creating

With skills in creating, you are able to put parts together to form a coherent or unique new whole. You can reorganize elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.

Creating requires originality and inventiveness. It brings together all levels of learning to theorize, design, and test new products, concepts or functions.

compose · produce · design · assemble · create · prepare · predict · modify · plan · invent · formulate · collect · generalize · document combine · relate · propose · develop · arrange · construct · organize · originate · derive · write · propose

You can explore these concepts further in the two videos, below. The first is from the Center for Learning Success at the Louisiana State University. It discusses Bloom’s taxonomy learning levels with regard to student success in college.

https://youtu.be/Qfp3x_qx5IM

This next video, Bloom’s Taxonomy Featuring Harry Potter Movies, is a culturally based way of understanding and applying Bloom’s taxonomy. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://youtu.be/TI4kZb0vLiY

The Power of Thought

From Bloom’s taxonomy of learning skills, you can see that thought and thinking can be understood as patterns—systems and schemes within the mind. There is order and structure in the way we think and in the way we process and internalize information.

As we look at patterns of thought, we can also think about the power of thought. As a result of many amazing and potent research and discoveries, the scientific community is learning a great deal about how plastic, malleable, and constantly changing the brain is. For example, the act of thinking—just thinking—can affect not only the way your brain works but also its physical shape and structure. The following video explores some of these discoveries, which relate to all the thinking and thoughts involved in college success.

https://youtu.be/-v-IMSKOtoE

Wilson, Leslie Owen. "Anderson and Krathwohl - Bloom's Taxonomy Revised." The Second Principle. 2013. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

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Patterns of Thought. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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21

Critical Thinking Skills

The essence of the independent mind lies not in what it thinks, but in how it thinks. —Christopher Hitchens, author and journalist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define critical thinking

Describe the role that logic plays in critical thinking

Describe how critical thinking skills can be used to problem-solve

Describe how critical thinking skills can be used to evaluate information

Identify strategies for developing yourself as a critical thinker

Critical Thinking

Thinking comes naturally. You don’t have to make it happen—it just does. But you can make it happen in different ways. For example, you can think positively or negatively. You can think with “heart” and you can think with rational judgment. You can also think strategically and analytically, and mathematically and scientifically. These are a few of multiple ways in which the mind can process thought.

What are some forms of thinking you use? When do you use them, and why?

As a college student, you are tasked with engaging and expanding your thinking skills. One of the most important of these skills is critical thinking. Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It’s a “domain-general” thinking skill—not a thinking skill that’s reserved for a one subject alone or restricted to a particular subject area.

Great leaders have highly attuned critical thinking skills, and you can, too. In fact, you probably have a lot of these skills already. Of all your thinking skills, critical thinking may have the greatest value.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. It means asking probing questions like, “How do we know?” or “Is this true in every case or just in this instance?” It involves being skeptical and challenging assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts or blindly accepting what you hear or read.

Imagine, for example, that you’re reading a history textbook. You wonder who wrote it and why, because you detect certain biases in the writing. You find that the author has a limited scope of research focused only on a particular group within a population. In this case, your critical thinking reveals that there are “other sides to the story.”

Who are critical thinkers, and what characteristics do they have in common? Critical thinkers are usually curious and reflective people. They like to explore and probe new areas and seek knowledge, clarification, and new solutions. They ask pertinent questions, evaluate statements and arguments, and they distinguish between facts and opinion. They are also willing to examine their own beliefs, possessing a manner of humility that allows them to admit lack of knowledge or understanding when needed. They are open to changing their mind. Perhaps most of all, they actively enjoy learning, and seeking new knowledge is a lifelong pursuit.

This may well be you!

No matter where you are on the road to being a critical thinker, you can always more fully develop and finely tune your skills. Doing so will help you develop more balanced arguments, express yourself clearly, read critically, and glean important information efficiently. Critical thinking skills will help you in any profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business to teaching. With critical thinking, you become a clearer thinker and problem solver.

Critical Thinking IS | Critical Thinking is NOT
Skepticism | Memorizing
Examining assumptions | Group thinking
Challenging reasoning | Blind acceptance of authority
Uncovering biases |

The following video, from Lawrence Bland, presents the major concepts and benefits of critical thinking.

https://youtu.be/WiSklIGUblo

Activity: Self-Assess Your Critical Thinking Strategies

Objectives

Assess your basic understanding of the skills involved in critical thinking.

Directions

Visit the Quia Critical Thinking Quiz page and click on Start Now (you don’t need to enter your name). Select the best answer for each question, and then click on Submit Answers. A score of 70 percent or better on this quiz is considering passing.

Based on the content of the questions, do you feel you use good critical thinking strategies in college? In what ways might you improve as a critical thinker?

Critical Thinking and Logic

Critical thinking is fundamentally a process of questioning information and data. You may question the information you read in a textbook, or you may question what a politician or a professor or a classmate says. You can also question a commonly-held belief or a new idea. With critical thinking, anything and everything is subject to question and examination for the purpose of logically constructing reasoned perspectives.

What Is Logic, and Why Is It Important in Critical Thinking?

The word logic comes from the Ancient Greek logike, referring to the science or art of reasoning. Using logic, a person evaluates arguments and reasoning and strives to distinguish between good and bad reasoning, or between truth and falsehood. Using logic, you can evaluate ideas or claims people make, make good decisions, and form sound beliefs about the world.[1]

Questions of Logic in Critical Thinking

Let’s use a simple example of applying logic to a critical-thinking situation. In this hypothetical scenario, a man has a PhD in political science, and he works as a professor at a local college. His wife works at the college, too. They have three young children in the local school system, and their family is well known in the community. The man is now running for political office. Are his credentials and experience sufficient for entering public office? Will he be effective in the political office? Some voters might believe that his personal life and current job, on the surface, suggest he will do well in the position, and they will vote for him. In truth, the characteristics described don’t guarantee that the man will do a good job. The information is somewhat irrelevant. What else might you want to know? How about whether the man had already held a political office and done a good job? In this case, we want to ask, How much information is adequate in order to make a decision based on logic instead of assumptions?

The following questions, presented in Figure 1, below, are ones you may apply to formulating a logical, reasoned perspective in the above scenario or any other situation:

What’s happening? Gather the basic information and begin to think of questions.

Why is it important? Ask yourself why it’s significant and whether or not you agree.

What don’t I see? Is there anything important missing?

How do I know? Ask yourself where the information came from and how it was constructed.

Who is saying it? What’s the position of the speaker and what is influencing them?

What else?What if? What other ideas exist and are there other possibilities?

Figure 1

Problem-Solving with Critical Thinking

For most people, a typical day is filled with critical thinking and problem-solving challenges. In fact, critical thinking and problem-solving go hand-in-hand. They both refer to using knowledge, facts, and data to solve problems effectively. But with problem-solving, you are specifically identifying, selecting, and defending your solution. Below are some examples of using critical thinking to problem-solve:

Your roommate was upset and said some unkind words to you, which put a crimp in the relationship. You try to see through the angry behaviors to determine how you might best support the roommate and help bring the relationship back to a comfortable spot.

Your campus club has been languishing on account of lack of participation and funds. The new club president, though, is a marketing major and has identified some strategies to interest students in joining and supporting the club. Implementation is forthcoming.

Your final art class project challenges you to conceptualize form in new ways. On the last day of class when students present their projects, you describe the techniques you used to fulfill the assignment. You explain why and how you selected that approach.

Your math teacher sees that the class is not quite grasping a concept. She uses clever questioning to dispel anxiety and guide you to new understanding of the concept.

You have a job interview for a position that you feel you are only partially qualified for, although you really want the job and you are excited about the prospects. You analyze how you will explain your skills and experiences in a way to show that you are a good match for the prospective employer.

You are doing well in college, and most of your college and living expenses are covered. But there are some gaps between what you want and what you feel you can afford. You analyze your income, savings, and budget to better calculate what you will need to stay in college and maintain your desired level of spending.

Problem-Solving Activity

Now let’s practice problem solving by working through the following activity.

Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

Problem-Solving Action Checklist

Problem-solving can be an efficient and rewarding process, especially if you are organized and mindful of critical steps and strategies. Remember, too, to assume the attributes of a good critical thinker. If you are curious, reflective, knowledge-seeking, open to change, probing, organized, and ethical, your challenge or problem will be less of a hurdle, and you’ll be in a good position to find intelligent solutions.

| STRATEGIES | ACTION CHECKLIST[2]

1
Define the problem

Identify the problem

Provide as many supporting details as possible

Provide examples

Organize the information logically

2
Identify available solutions

Use logic to identify your most important goals

Identify implications and consequences

Identify facts

Compare and contrast possible solutions

3 | Select your solution | Use gathered facts and relevant evidence Support and defend solutions considered valid Defend your solution

Evaluating Information with Critical Thinking

Evaluating information can be one of the most complex tasks you will be faced with in college. But if you utilize the following four strategies, you will be well on your way to success:

Read for understanding by using text coding

Examine arguments

Clarify thinking

Cultivate “habits of mind”

Read for Understanding Using Text Coding

When you read and take notes, use the text coding strategy. Text coding is a way of tracking your thinking while reading. It entails marking the text and recording what you are thinking either in the margins or perhaps on Post-it notes. As you make connections and ask questions in response to what you read,  you monitor your comprehension and enhance your long-term understanding of the material.

With text coding, mark important arguments and key facts. Indicate where you agree and disagree or have further questions. You don’t necessarily need to read every word, but make sure you understand the concepts or the intentions behind what is written. Feel free to develop your own shorthand style when reading or taking notes. The following are a few options to consider using while coding text.

Shorthand | Meaning
! | Important
L | Learned something new
! | Big idea surfaced
* | Interesting or important fact
? | Dig deeper
✓ | Agree
≠ | Disagree

See more text coding from PBWorks and Collaborative for Teaching and Learning.

Examine Arguments

When you examine arguments or claims that an author, speaker, or other source is making, your goal is to identify and examine the hard facts. You can use the spectrum of authority strategy for this purpose. The spectrum of authority strategy assists you in identifying the “hot” end of an argument—feelings, beliefs, cultural influences, and societal influences—and the “cold” end of an argument—scientific influences. The following video explains this strategy.

https://youtu.be/9G5xooMN2_c

Clarify Thinking

When you use critical thinking to evaluate information, you need to clarify your thinking to yourself and likely to others. Doing this well is mainly a process of asking and answering probing questions, such as the logic questions discussed earlier. Design your questions to fit your needs, but be sure to cover adequate ground. What is the purpose? What question are we trying to answer? What point of view is being expressed? What assumptions are we or others making? What are the facts and data we know, and how do we know them? What are the concepts we’re working with? What are the conclusions, and do they make sense? What are the implications?

Cultivate “Habits of Mind”

“Habits of mind” are the personal commitments, values, and standards you have about the principle of good thinking. Consider your intellectual commitments, values, and standards. Do you approach problems with an open mind, a respect for truth, and an inquiring attitude? Some good habits to have when thinking critically are being receptive to having your opinions changed, having respect for others, being independent and not accepting something is true until you’ve had the time to examine the available evidence, being fair-minded, having respect for a reason, having an inquiring mind, not making assumptions, and always, especially, questioning your own conclusions—in other words, developing an intellectual work ethic. Try to work these qualities into your daily life.

Developing Yourself As a Critical Thinker

Critical thinking is a desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness to meditate, slowness to assert, readiness to consider, carefulness to dispose and set in order; and hatred for every kind of imposture. —Francis Bacon, philosopher

Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for college students, but it should also be a lifelong pursuit. Below are additional strategies to develop yourself as a critical thinker in college and in everyday life:

Reflect and practice: Always reflect on what you’ve learned. Is it true all the time? How did you arrive at your conclusions?

Use wasted time: It’s certainly important to make time for relaxing, but if you find you are indulging in too much of a good thing, think about using your time more constructively. Determine when you do your best thinking and try to learn something new during that part of the day.

Redefine the way you see things: It can be very uninteresting to always think the same way. Challenge yourself to see familiar things in new ways. Put yourself in someone else’s shoes and consider things from a different angle or perspective.  If you’re trying to solve a problem, list all your concerns: what you need in order to solve it, who can help, what some possible barriers might be, etc. It’s often possible to reframe a problem as an opportunity. Try to find a solution where there seems to be none.

Analyze the influences on your thinking and in your life: Why do you think or feel the way you do? Analyze your influences. Think about who in your life influences you. Do you feel or react a certain way because of social convention, or because you believe it is what is expected of you? Try to break out of any molds that may be constricting you.

Express yourself: Critical thinking also involves being able to express yourself clearly. Most important in expressing yourself clearly is stating one point at a time. You might be inclined to argue every thought, but you might have greater impact if you focus just on your main arguments. This will help others to follow your thinking clearly. For more abstract ideas, assume that your audience may not understand. Provide examples, analogies, or metaphors where you can.

Enhance your wellness: It’s easier to think critically when you take care of your mental and physical health. Try taking 10-minute activity breaks to reach 30 to 60 minutes of physical activity each day. Try taking a break between classes and walk to the coffee shop that’s farthest away. Scheduling physical activity into your day can help lower stress and increase mental alertness. Also, do your most difficult work when you have the most energy. Think about the time of day you are most effective and have the most energy. Plan to do your most difficult work during these times. And be sure to reach out for help. If you feel you need assistance with your mental or physical health, talk to a counselor or visit a doctor.

Activity: Reflect on Critical Thinking

Objective

Apply critical thinking strategies to your life

Directions:

Think about someone you consider to be a critical thinker (friend, professor, historical figure, etc). What qualities does he/she have?

Review some of the critical thinking strategies discussed on this page. Pick one strategy that makes sense to you. How can you apply this critical thinking technique to your academic work?

Habits of mind are attitudes and beliefs that influence how you approach the world (i.e., inquiring attitude, open mind, respect for truth, etc). What is one habit of mind you would like to actively develop over the next year? How will you develop a daily practice to cultivate this habit?

Write your responses in journal form, and submit according to your instructor’s guidelines.

Summary

The following text is an excerpt from an essay by Dr. Andrew Robert Baker, “Thinking Critically and Creatively.” In these paragraphs, Dr. Baker underscores the importance of critical thinking—the imperative of critical thinking, really—to improving as students, teachers, and researchers. The follow-up portion of this essay appears in the Creative Thinking section of this course.

Thinking Critically and Creatively

Critical thinking skills are perhaps the most fundamental skills involved in making judgments and solving problems. You use them every day, and you can continue improving them.

The ability to think critically about a matter—to analyze a question, situation, or problem down to its most basic parts—is what helps us evaluate the accuracy and truthfulness of statements, claims, and information we read and hear. It is the sharp knife that, when honed, separates fact from fiction, honesty from lies, and the accurate from the misleading. We all use this skill to one degree or another almost every day. For example, we use critical thinking every day as we consider the latest consumer products and why one particular product is the best among its peers. Is it a quality product because a celebrity endorses it? Because a lot of other people may have used it? Because it is made by one company versus another? Or perhaps because it is made in one country or another? These are questions representative of critical thinking.

The academic setting demands more of us in terms of critical thinking than everyday life. It demands that we evaluate information and analyze myriad issues. It is the environment where our critical thinking skills can be the difference between success and failure. In this environment we must consider information in an analytical, critical manner. We must ask questions—What is the source of this information? Is this source an expert one and what makes it so? Are there multiple perspectives to consider on an issue? Do multiple sources agree or disagree on an issue? Does quality research substantiate information or opinion? Do I have any personal biases that may affect my consideration of this information?

It is only through purposeful, frequent, intentional questioning such as this that we can sharpen our critical thinking skills and improve as students, learners and researchers.

—Dr. Andrew Robert Baker, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

Resources for Critical Thinking

Glossary of Critical Thinking Terms

Critical Thinking Self-Assessment

Logical Fallacies Jeopardy Template

Fallacies Files—Home

Thinking Critically | Learning Commons

Foundation for Critical Thinking

To Analyze Thinking We Must Identify and Question Its Elemental Structures

Critical Thinking in Everyday Life

"logike." Wordnik. n.d. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"Student Success-Thinking Critically In Class and Online." Critical Thinking Gateway. St Petersburg College, n.d. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

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Critical Thinking Skills. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of three students. Authored by: PopTech. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/8tXtQp. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Critical Thinking. Provided by: Critical and Creative Thinking Program. Located at: http://cct.wikispaces.umb.edu/Critical+Thinking. License: CC BY: Attribution

Thinking Critically. Authored by: UBC Learning Commons. Provided by: The University of British Columbia, Vancouver Campus. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/learning-toolkit-critical-thinking/view. License: CC BY: Attribution

Critical Thinking 101: Spectrum of Authority. Authored by: UBC Leap. Located at: https://youtu.be/9G5xooMN2_c. License: CC BY: Attribution

Image of students putting post-its on wall. Authored by: Hector Alejandro. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/7b2Ax2. License: CC BY: Attribution

Foundations of Academic Success. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Critical Thinking.wmv. Authored by: Lawrence Bland. Located at: https://youtu.be/WiSklIGUblo. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

22

Creative Thinking Skills

Everybody has a creative potential and from the moment you can express this creative potential, you can start changing the world. —Paulo Coelho, author and lyricist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define creative thinking

Identify the value of creative thinking in education

Describe the impact of limitations (such as rules) on creative thinking

Describe the role of creative thinking skills in problem-solving

Creative Thinking

Think about a time when you visited a museum or a sculpture garden, or you attended an orchestral performance or a concert by a favorite performer. Did you marvel at the skill, the artistry, and the innovation? Did you imagine how wonderful it must feel to have those abilities?

If you’ve ever had thoughts like this, you must know you’re not alone. It’s hard for anyone to behold a great work of art or performance and not imagine standing, even briefly, in the artist’s shoes.

But when you’ve admired creative works or creative people, have you acknowledged the seeds of creativity within yourself?

You might be surprised to know that everyone has creative abilities: it’s true of everyone who fully expresses creative abilities as well as those who express them very little or not at all. All humans are innately creative, especially if creativity is understood as a problem-solving skill.

Put another way, creativity is inspired when there is a problem to solve. For example, when a sculptor creates an amazing sculpture, it’s an act of problem-solving: perhaps she must determine which artistic style to use in order to create the likeness of an object, or perhaps she is deciding which tools will most suit her purpose or style, perhaps she is assessing how best to satisfy a customer’s request or earn income from her art—you get the idea. In every case, the problem sparks the sculptor’s creativity and she brings her creativity to bear in finding an artistic solution.

Considered as an act of problem-solving, creativity can be understood as a skill—as opposed to an inborn talent or natural “gift”—that can be taught as well as learned. Problem-solving is something we are called upon to do every day, from performing mundane chores to executing sophisticated projects. The good news is that we can always improve upon our problem-solving and creative-thinking skills—even if we don’t consider ourselves to be artists or “creative.” The following information may surprise and encourage you!

Creative thinking (a companion to critical thinking) is an invaluable skill for college students. It’s  important because it helps you look at problems and situations from a fresh perspective. Creating thinking is a way to develop novel or unorthodox solutions that do not depend wholly on past or current solutions. It’s a way of employing strategies to clear your mind so that your thoughts and ideas can transcend what appear to be the limitations of a problem. Creative thinking is a way of moving beyond barriers.[1]

As a creative thinker, you are curious, optimistic, and imaginative. You see problems as interesting opportunities, and you challenge assumptions and suspend judgment. You don’t give up easily. You work hard.[2]

Is this you? Even if you don’t yet see yourself as a competent creative thinker or problem-solver, you can learn solid skills and techniques to help you become one.

Activity: Assess Your Creative Problem-Solving Skills

Objective

Evaluate your attitude toward problem-solving in the context of cultivating creative thinking.

Directions:

Access Psychology Today’s Creative Problem-Solving Test at the Psychology Today Web site.

Read the introductory text, which explains how creativity is linked to fundamental qualities of thinking, such as flexibility and tolerance of ambiguity.

Then advance to the questions by clicking on the “Take The Test” button. The test has 20 questions and will take roughly 10 minutes.

After finishing the test, you will receive a Snapshot Report with an introduction, a graph, and a personalized interpretation for one of your test scores.

Complete any further steps by following your instructor’s directions.

Creative Thinking in Education

Now that you have taken the creative problem-solving self-assessment test, do you have a better sense of which creative thinking skills and attitudes you have, and which ones you might want to improve upon?

College is great ground for enhancing creative thinking skills. The following are some college  activities that can stimulate creative thinking. Are any familiar to you?

Design sample exam questions to test your knowledge as you study for a final.

Devise a social media strategy for a club on campus.

Propose an education plan for a major you are designing for yourself.

Prepare a speech that you will give in a debate in your course.

Develop a pattern for a costume in a theatrical production.

Arrange audience seats in your classroom to maximize attention during your presentation.

Arrange an eye-catching holiday display in your dormitory or apartment building.

Participate in a brainstorming session with your fellow musicians on how you will collaborate to write a musical composition.

Draft a script for a video production that will be shown to several college administrators.

Compose a set of requests and recommendations for a campus office to improve its customer service.

Develop a marketing pitch for a mock business you are developing.

Develop a comprehensive energy-reduction plan for your cohousing arrangement.

How to Stimulate Creative Thinking

The following video, How to Stimulate the Creative Process, identifies six strategies to stimulate your creative thinking.

Sleep on it. Over the years, researchers have found that the REM sleep cycle boosts our creativity and problem-solving abilities, providing us with innovative ideas or answers to vexing dilemmas when we awaken. Keep a pen and paper by the bed so you can write down your nocturnal insights if they wake you up.

Go for a run or hit the gym. Studies indicate that exercise stimulates creative thinking, and the brainpower boost lasts for a few hours.

Allow your mind to wander a few times every day. Far from being a waste of time, daydreaming has been found to be an essential part of generating new ideas. If you’re stuck on a problem or creatively blocked, think about something else for a while.

Keep learning. Studying something far removed from your area of expertise is especially effective in helping you think in new ways.

Put yourself in nerve-racking situations once in a while to fire up your brain. Fear and frustration can trigger innovative thinking.

Keep a notebook with you so you always have a way to record fleeting thoughts. They’re sometimes the best ideas of all.

https://youtu.be/kPC8e-Jk5uw

A Brainstorm of Tips for Creative Thinking

The best way to have a good idea is to have lots of ideas. —Linus Pauling, double Nobel Laureate, chemist, biochemist, and peace campaigner

Below are some additional tips to help you tap into original and creative thinking in your college assignments and endeavors:

Sensing

Use all your senses—see, taste, smell, touch, hear, think, speak.

Be a good observer of people, nature, and events around you.

Thinking

Engage thinking on the right side of your brain (intuition, open-mindedness, visual perception, rhythm . . .).

Change  your interpretation of an event, situation, behavior, person, or object.

Allow ideas to incubate.

Be open to insight as ideas pop into your mind.

Imagining

Brainstorm by generating ideas with a group of people.

Ask, “What would happen if . . .”

Ask, “In how many different ways . . .”

Develop ideas and expand their possibilities.

Envision the future.

Speaking and Writing

Use your words and your “voice” when conveying your original ideas.

Avoid using clichés or overly familiar responses to questions or problems.

Explain how your ideas move beyond the status quo and contribute to a discussion.

Take notes.

Drawing

Use mind-mapping to capture ideas; start with a key concept and write it in the center of your page; use connecting lines, radiating from the central concept, and write down any connected or related ideas that come to you.

Create pictures or drawings of situations (“rich pictures”) to show them in a different way.

Learning

Find ways to demonstrate your personal investment in projects.

Gather knowledge and conduct research.

Have more fun learning!

Moving

Do physical activities to engage the creative areas of your brain and think differently.

Resting

Take breaks.

Creative Thinking Fiction and Facts

As you continue to develop your creative thinking skills, be alert to perceptions about creative thinking that could slow down progress. Remember that creative thinking and problem-solving are ways to transcend the limitations of a problem and see past barriers. It’s a way to think “outside of the box.”

| FICTION | FACTS[3]

1
Every problem has only one solution (or one right answer)
The goal of problem-solving is to solve the problem, and most problems can be solved in any number of ways. If you discover a solution that works, it’s a good solution. Other people may think up solutions that differ from yours, but that doesn’t make your solution wrong or unimportant. What is the solution to “putting words on paper”? Fountain pen, ballpoint, pencil, marker, typewriter, printer, printing press, word-processing . . .?

2
The best answer or solution or method has already been discovered
Look at the history of any solution and you’ll see that improvements, new solutions, and new right answers are always being found. What is the solution to human transportation? The ox or horse, the cart, the wagon, the train, the car, the airplane, the jet, the space shuttle? What is the best and last?

3 | Creative answers are technologically complex | Only a few problems require complex technological solutions. Most problems you’ll encounter need only a thoughtful solution involving personal action and perhaps a few simple tools. Even many problems that seem to require technology can be addressed in other ways.

4
Ideas either come or they don’t. Nothing will help— certainly not structure.
There are many successful techniques for generating ideas. One important technique is to include structure. Create guidelines, limiting parameters, and concrete goals for yourself that stimulate and shape your creativity. This strategy can help you get past the intimidation of “the blank page.” For example, if you want to write a story about a person who gained insight through experience, you can stoke your creativity by limiting or narrowing your theme to “a young girl in Cambodia escaped the Khmer Rouge to find a new life as a nurse in France.” Apply this specificity and structure to any creative endeavor.

Problem-Solving with Creative Thinking

Creative problem-solving is a type of problem-solving. It involves searching for new and novel solutions to problems. Unlike critical thinking, which scrutinizes assumptions and uses reasoning, creative thinking is about generating alternative ideas— practices and solutions that are unique and effective. It’s about facing sometimes muddy and unclear problems and seeing how “things” can be done differently—how new solutions can be imagined.[4]

The following words, by Dr. Andrew Robert Baker, are excerpted from his “Thinking Critically and Creatively” essay introduced earlier. Below, Dr. Baker continues to illuminate some of the many ways that college students will be exposed to creative thinking and how it can enrich their learning experiences.

Thinking Critically and Creatively

While critical thinking analyzes information and roots out the true nature and facets of problems, it is creative thinking that drives progress forward when it comes to solving these problems. Exceptional creative thinkers are people that invent new solutions to existing problems that do not rely on past or current solutions. They are the ones who invent solution C when everyone else is still arguing between A and B. Creative thinking skills involve using strategies to clear the mind so that our thoughts and ideas can transcend the current limitations of a problem and allow us to see beyond barriers that prevent new solutions from being found.

Brainstorming is the simplest example of intentional creative thinking that most people have tried at least once. With the quick generation of many ideas at once, we can block-out our brain’s natural tendency to limit our solution-generating abilities so we can access and combine many possible solutions/thoughts and invent new ones. It is sort of like sprinting through a race’s finish line only to find there is new track on the other side and we can keep going, if we choose. As with critical thinking, higher education both demands creative thinking from us and is the perfect place to practice and develop the skill. Everything from word problems in a math class, to opinion or persuasive speeches and papers, call upon our creative thinking skills to generate new solutions and perspectives in response to our professor’s demands. Creative thinking skills ask questions such as—What if? Why not? What else is out there? Can I combine perspectives/solutions? What is something no one else has brought-up? What is being forgotten/ignored? What about ______? It is the opening of doors and options that follows problem-identification.

Consider an assignment that required you to compare two different authors on the topic of education and select and defend one as better. Now add to this scenario that your professor clearly prefers one author over the other. While critical thinking can get you as far as identifying the similarities and differences between these authors and evaluating their merits, it is creative thinking that you must use if you wish to challenge your professor’s opinion and invent new perspectives on the authors that have not previously been considered.

So, what can we do to develop our critical and creative thinking skills? Although many students may dislike it, group work is an excellent way to develop our thinking skills. Many times I have heard from students their disdain for working in groups based on scheduling, varied levels of commitment to the group or project, and personality conflicts too, of course. True—it’s not always easy, but that is why it is so effective. When we work collaboratively on a project or problem we bring many brains to bear on a subject. These different brains will naturally develop varied ways of solving or explaining problems and examining information. To the observant individual we see that this places us in a constant state of back and forth critical/creative thinking modes.

For example, in group work we are simultaneously analyzing information and generating solutions on our own, while challenging other’s analyses/ideas and responding to challenges to our own analyses/ideas. This is part of why students tend to avoid group work—it challenges us as thinkers and forces us to analyze others while defending ourselves, which is not something we are used to or comfortable with as most of our educational experiences involve solo work. Your professors know this—that’s why we assign it—to help you grow as students, learners, and thinkers!

—Dr. Andrew Robert Baker, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

Resources for Creative Thinking

Games That Stimulate Creativity

Creative Thinking Skills

45 Websites on Creative Thinking and Creative Skills

Creativity Techniques A To Z

Mumaw, Stefan. "Born This Way: Is Creativity Innate or Learned?" Peachpit. Pearson, 27 Dec 2012. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

Harris, Robert. "Introduction to Creative Thinking." Virtual Salt. 2 Apr 2012. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

Harris, Robert. "Introduction to Creative Thinking." Virtual Salt. 2 Apr 2012. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"Critical and Creative Thinking, MA." University of Massachusetts Boston. 2016. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

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Creative Thinking Skills. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of throwing a pot. Authored by: Sterling College. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/qFFeQG. License: CC BY: Attribution

Creative Thinking Skills. Provided by: Fostering Creativity and Critical Thinking with Technology. Located at: https://creativecriticalthinking.wikispaces.com/Creative+Thinking. License: Other. License Terms: GNU Free Documentation License

Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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How to Stimulate the Creative Process. Authored by: Howcast. Located at: https://youtu.be/kPC8e-Jk5uw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

23

Thinking with Technology

The number-one benefit of information technology is that it empowers people to do what they want to do. It lets people be creative. It lets people be productive. It lets people learn things they didn’t think they could learn before, and so in a sense it is all about potential. —Steve Ballmer, American businessman and former CEO of the Microsoft Corporation

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify technology tools that enhance student learning

Explain how technology skills relate to critical/creative thinking skills

Examine online learning in the context of organizing, communicating, reading, and researching online

Assess student readiness to use technology

Technology for College Learning

In November 2001, an exciting $700 million-dollar project began in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: The public school system would be modernized and upgraded. Part of the renovation would take place in the Emerson School, a 120-year-old building—one of the first public schools built in the city. Slated to be removed and replaced with Smart Boards were four old green chalkboards still hanging on several classroom walls.

When the contractors removed the green chalkboards, though, they made an amazing discovery: They found a set of untouched blackboards hanging behind the green chalkboards, which contained writings and drawing of students and teachers in 1917. On one board, for instance, were notes in a treble clef, apparently from a music class. On another blackboard were illustrations of Thanksgiving pilgrims. On still another was a multiplication wheel—a teaching device of yesteryear that the then-current school employees did not understand. And the Pledge of Allegiance was written on one of the boards in pristine cursive penmanship. The renovators also found old report cards, as well as a newspaper clipping advertising “Women’s shoes, $3.00!”

Teacher Sherry Read reflected on the meaning of this discovery: “I think they [the teachers in 1917] left them there on purpose to send a message to us, to say, ‘This is what was going on in our time.’”

Today, the formerly hidden chalkboards are protected with acrylic glass. Controls are also in place for light and temperature exposure. With this care, the chalkboards could last another one hundred years. To see photographs of the find, visit Oklahoma’s Hidden Chalkboards of Yesteryear.

Indeed, 1917 was another era of classroom teaching. Just imagine if the students and teachers from that day were to visit your college classrooms today. How much culture shock would they experience? Do you think they would be able to catch on to your level of technology skill and awareness?

Clearly, the technological differences between 1917 and now are staggering. Today we have online classes, blended learning, and flipped classrooms, MOOCs, microlectures, and mobile learning. We have blogs, wikis, podcasts, clickers, cloud computing, virtual reality and gaming. And we have laptops, tablets, smartphones, 3D printing, eye tracking, and LCD touch boards. Then there’s the explosion of social networking explosion—Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, YouTube, Twitter, Tumblr, Flickr, and Google+—not to mention the invention of Apple, Microsoft, and the Internet, and, well, online dating!

What’s next, and how soon will it come?

It’s no wonder that colleges and universities today place a heavy emphasis on teaching and learning with technology. Consider the following statistics:

85 percent of college-bound students say technology in the classroom and the availability of online classes are their top determinants in choosing a college.[1]

The total of 5.8 million distance-education students in fall 2014 was composed of 2.85 million taking all of their courses at a distance, and 2.97 million taking some, but not all, courses at a distance.

One in every seven students studies exclusively online; more than one in four students takes at least one online course.

Public institutions command the largest portion of distance-education students, with 72.7 percent of undergraduate and 38.7 percent of graduate-level distance students.

Students favor laptops as their digital technology of choice. In a study conducted by Harris Poll for AMD (a technology company), 85 percent of study respondents own a laptop, used variously for taking notes during class, doing homework and projects, watching television shows and videos, and conducting multiple other tasks. Forty-one percent of the AMD study respondents reported that they consider the laptop to be more important than a TV, bicycle, car, or tablet.[2]

Distance-education enrollments continue to grow.

Critical and Creative Thinking with Technology

Why is there such a powerful thrust behind technology in education? How significantly is technology contributing to our ability to be critical and creative thinkers? After all, technology, by itself, cannot create critical or creative thinkers. But when it’s used with the guidance of a teacher who understands how to use it, and by students who also have sufficient technology skills and resources, the teaching and learning process can be considerably enhanced. Consider the following:

Computer software and Internet resources allow students to record, defend, and challenge their thinking.

Digital camcorders allow students to observe and analyze the world—to resee and reimagine it in a way that appeals to them.

Interactive whiteboards are helpful for class discussions about ideas or Web content; they facilitate whole-class display and hands-on participation.

Student-response systems, like clickers, allow students to respond to questions and then debate the answers.

Blogs can serve as personal journals, where students can record, share, and reflect on field experiences and research activities. Students can also use blogs as a preestablished environment for critically responding to assigned readings.

Wikis can help students coordinate, compile, synthesize, and present individual or group projects or research, as well as build and share group resources and knowledge. Wikis can also help students provide peer review, feedback, and critiques.

Discussion boards can help students establish a sense of community with their class and engage in ongoing threaded conversations on assigned readings and topics highlighting diverse points of view.

The following graphic illustrates how different digital technologies can help faculty and students with critical and creative thinking. Notice the six main categories in the graphic. They correspond with Bloom’s taxonomy, discussed in the section on Patterns of Thought.

The red and blue arrows outside the diagram indicate the fluidity with which the tools can travel through the different levels in the taxonomy. All in all, the diagram, below, shows the interconnectedness of technology resources in helping users increase their critical and creative thinking skills.

Getting Tech-Ready

If you are thinking about taking an online course or even a blended or hybrid-format course, you already know that it will require some basic technological skills. And while you don’t necessarily need to be a computer scientist to take a class that involves a lot of online work, you should have a solid understanding of the basic technical skills needed to succeed. Understanding what these skills are up front will make things much easier for you as a student.

The Getting Tech-Ready tutorial, below, is from the California Community College system. It is specially designed to help California’s online community college students, but it is widely applicable to college students taking technology-enhanced courses anywhere. It will help you becoming familiar with the following:

the hardware and software requirements of most online and hybrid courses

the value of a fast Internet connection

how to locate and download the free plugins that your course might require

the basics of email

how to obtain tech support when you need it

When you have finished this first Getting Tech-Ready tutorial, complete the computer-readiness activity, below.

NOTE: You will find additional tutorials, below, from the OEI Online Learner Readiness project. All are geared to help students develop skills required to be successful online learners. Remember that even though you may be a savvy smartphone, tablet, and/or computer user, you may not be prepared for the particular challenge of college-level learning in the online environment. The tutorials below are engaging and interactive, and are designed to address the real challenges that both experienced and novice online students may encounter.

Tutorial #1: “Getting Tech-Ready” from the Chancellor’s Office, California Community Colleges 

Activity: Online Learning and Computer Software Readiness

Objectives

Test your computer software to ensure that you are ready to access online resources

Assess your readiness to participate in online learning

Identify key factors in being a successful online learner

Directions

Start by going to the Computer Readiness Test. It will test your current browser for specific plugins and versions of Adobe PDF Reader, the Adobe Flash Player, Oracle Java, Microsoft Silverlight and Apple QuickTime Play. These plugins help you better navigate and participate in typical technology-enhanced activities in college. When you are finished with the quick test, it will output the results.

Now visit the Online Learning Readiness Questionnaire. You will be queried about your interests in and aptitudes for online learning. Your answers will help you determine what you need to do to succeed at online learning. Post-survey feedback will also provide you with information on what you can expect from an online course.

Introduction to Online Learning

In tutorial #2, below, also from the OEI Online Learner Readiness project, you will investigate online learning as an alternative to a traditional classroom. What will this mean for you as a student? In the tutorial you will be introduced to the world of online learning: how it works, a few of the common misconceptions about online learning environments, and some differences you will encounter when taking courses online rather than in a traditional classroom.

Tutorial #2: “Introduction to Online Learning” from the Chancellor’s Office, California Community Colleges

Organizing with Technology

Tutorial #3, below, will help you organize for online learning success. This is important for online learners because the format is quite different from a face-to-face (f2f) course on campus. In a “f2f” course, for instance, you’ll typically meet with your instructor and the other students in your class at least once a week and receive frequent reminders about when assignments are due.

In an online environment, though, it’s up to you to remind yourself. Luckily, there are a lot of tools available to help you get started. But first it’s important to get organized.

Tutorial #3 will help you to do the following:

organize your physical study space

organize your course materials

develop a scheduling system that will help you turn all of your coursework in on time

Tutorial #3: “Organizing with Technology” from the Chancellor’s Office, California Community Colleges

Communicating with Technology

Good communication skills are essential in online and blended courses. There are many different ways you’ll communicate with your instructor and other students in your class. Tutorial #4 introduces you to common terms you’ll need to know and some concepts that can lead you to success in your class. The following important topics are covered:

the vocabulary that may be used to describe communication in your online class

how communication is different for you as a student when you’re learning online

some of the advantages and disadvantages of academic online communication

how to become an effective communicator in an online or blended course

Tutorial #4: “Communicating with Technology” from the Chancellor’s Office, California Community Colleges

Reading and Researching with Technology

In an online learning environment, you’re probably going to do more reading than listening. You may do some of your reading in printed form—say, an assigned novel or textbook—but some of it might also be online in the form of a Web page. Reading online isn’t the same as reading in print, so it’s important to practice some strategies that will improve your online reading comprehension and speed. Some of the strategies described in the next tutorial will help you with any kind of reading you’re doing—not just online material. Tutorial #5 discusses the following:

some of the differences between reading print and reading online

strategies for staying focused when reading online

ways to maximize your reading speed and comprehension

Tutorial #5: “Online Reading Strategies” from the Chancellor’s Office, California Community Colleges 

Below are two additional resources that complement the online reading strategies tutorial. They will help you use the Internet to find scholarly material and evaluate Web sites for accuracy, relevance, etc.

https://youtu.be/y4JWpcIr5DQ

https://youtu.be/0UuShwtYpGg

Mobile Learning and Social Networking

Mobile learning and social networking are both major players in college life and learning. You are likely quite adept at both! Consider the following statistics:

Mobile Learning: By the time the class of 2016 graduates, close to 91.4 percent of U.S. college students will own a smartphone. See the eMarketer data graph showing U.S. college student smartphone users, 2010–2016. In 2010, the number was 8.14 million; the number projected for 2016 is 17 million. Students want and need to use their mobile device for learning.[3]

Social Networking: See the eMarketer.com data graph showing the daily time spent on select social networks by U.S. college student Internet users, as of May 2015. The graph answers the question about whether or not young people have given up on Facebook. Clearly, Facebook is still a winner. Social networking can readily facilitate learning.[4]

Resources

Top 100 Tools for Learning

Are You Ready To Be An Online Student?

UCF Knights Online Course Tours

Student Success – Thinking Critically In Class and Online

Technology and Classroom: MOOCS, Flipped Classroom and Micro-lecture

The Case Files: What college was like before modern technology

"Digital Capabilities at Universities Key to Draw Students." CareerIndia. 28 Nov 2014. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"Survey Reveals How Much College Students Rely on Technology." SchoolGuides. 13 Jul 2014. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"College Students Adopt Mobile Across the Board." Newsroom. eMarketer, 28 Aug 2012. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

"College Students Still Spend Most Social Time with Facebook." eMarketer. 8 Sept 2015. Web. 16 Feb 2016.

CC licensed content, Original

Technology Wordle. Authored by: Linda Bruce. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Thinking with Technology. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of two women looking at computer monitor. Authored by: US Department of Education. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/fDex85. License: CC BY: Attribution

Using Technology to Promote Creative and Critical Thinking Skills. Provided by: Fostering Creativity and Critical Thinking with Technology. Located at: https://creativecriticalthinking.wikispaces.com/. License: Other. License Terms: GNU Free Documentation License

Image of technology paired with Bloom's Taxonomy. Authored by: M. Fisher. Located at: https://visualblooms.wikispaces.com/home. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Getting Tech Ready. Provided by: California Community Colleges. Located at: https://apps.3cmediasolutions.org/oei/02-Getting-Tech-Ready/index.html. Project: Online Education Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution

Guidelines for Communicating with Instructors. Authored by: Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by: Chadron State College. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution

Internet Skills 3: How to Use the Internet to Find Scholarly Material. Authored by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://youtu.be/y4JWpcIr5DQ. License: CC BY: Attribution

Internet Skills 1: How to Evaluate a Website. Authored by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://youtu.be/0UuShwtYpGg. License: CC BY: Attribution

7

Learning Styles and Strategies

24

The Learning Process

The learning process is something you can incite, literally incite, like a riot. —Audre Lorde, writer and civil rights activist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the stages of the learning process

Define learning styles, and identify your preferred learning style(s)

Define multimodal learning

Describe how you might apply your preferred learning strategies to classroom scenarios

Stages of the Learning Process

Consider experiences you’ve had with learning something new, such as learning to tie your shoes or drive a car. You probably began by showing interest in the process, and after some struggling it became second nature. These experiences were all part of the learning process, which can be described in the four stages:

Unconscious incompetence: This will likely be the easiest learning stage—you don’t know what you don’t know yet. During this stage, a learner mainly shows interest in something or prepares for learning. For example, if you wanted to learn how to dance, you might watch a video, talk to an instructor, or sign up for a future class. Stage 1 might not take long.

Conscious incompetence: This stage can be the most difficult for learners, because you begin to register how much you need to learn—you know what you don’t know. Think about the saying “It’s easier said than done.” In stage 1 the learner only has to discuss or show interest in a new experience, but in stage 2, he or she begins to apply new skills that contribute to reaching the learning goal. In the dance example above, you would now be learning basic dance steps. Successful completion of this stage relies on practice.

Conscious competence: You are beginning to master some parts of the learning goal and are feeling some confidence about what you do know. For example, you might now be able to complete basic dance steps with few mistakes and without your instructor reminding you how to do them. Stage 3 requires skill repetition.

Unconscious competence: This is the final stage in which learners have successfully practiced and repeated the process they learned so many times that they can do it almost without thinking. At this point in your dancing, you might be able to apply your dance skills to a freestyle dance routine that you create yourself. However, to feel you are a “master” of a particular skill by the time you reach stage 4, you still need to practice constantly and reevaluate which stage you are in so you can keep learning. For example, if you now felt confident in basic dance skills and could perform your own dance routine, perhaps you’d want to explore other kinds of dance, such as tango or swing. That would return you to stage 1 or 2, but you might progress through the stages more quickly this time on account of the dance skills you acquired earlier. [1]

Take a moment to watch the following video by Kristos called The Process of Learning. As you watch, consider how painful it can be—literally!—to learn something new, but also how much joy can be experienced after it’s learned. Note that the video has no audio.

https://youtu.be/G1eQ6JWAi9Q

Kyle was excited to take a beginning Spanish class to prepare for a semester abroad in Spain. Before his first vocabulary quiz, he reviewed his notes many times. Kyle took the quiz, but when he got the results, he was surprised to see that he had earned a B-, despite having studied so much. 

Kyle’s professor suggested that he experiment with different ways of studying. For example, in addition to studying his written notes, he might listen to a tape of the vocabulary words, as well.

Identifying Learning Styles

Many of us, like Kyle, are accustomed to very traditional learning styles as a result of our experience as K–12 students. For instance, we can all remember listening to a teacher talk, and copying notes off the chalkboard. However, when it comes to learning, one size doesn’t fit all. People have different learning styles and preferences, and these can vary from subject to subject. For example, while Kyle might prefer listening to recordings to help him learn Spanish, he might prefer hands-on activities like labs to master the concepts in his biology course. But what are learning styles, and where does the idea come from?

Learning styles are also called learning modalities. Walter Burke Barbe and his colleagues proposed the following three learning modalities (often identified by the acronym VAK):

Visual

Auditory

Kinesthetic

Examples of these modalities are shown in the table, below.

Visual | Kinesthetic | Auditory
Picture | Gestures | Listening
Shape | Body Movements | Rhythms
Sculpture | Object Manipulation | Tone
Paintings | Positioning | Chants

Neil Fleming’s VARK model expanded on the three modalities described above and added “Read/Write Learning” as a fourth.

The four sensory modalities in Fleming’s model are:

Visual learning

Auditory learning

Read/write learning

Kinesthetic learning

Fleming claimed that visual learners have a preference for seeing (visual aids that represent ideas using methods other than words, such as graphs, charts, diagrams, symbols, etc.). Auditory learners best learn through listening (lectures, discussions, tapes, etc.). Read/write learners have a preference for written words (readings, dictionaries, reference works, research, etc.) Tactile/kinesthetic learners prefer to learn via experience—moving, touching, and doing (active exploration of the world, science projects, experiments, etc.).

The VAK/VARK models can be a helpful way of thinking about different learning styles and preferences, but they are certainly not the last word on how people learn or prefer to learn. Many educators consider the distinctions useful, finding that students benefit from having access to a blend of learning approaches. Others find the idea of three or four “styles” to be distracting or limiting.

In the college setting, you’ll probably discover that instructors teach their course materials according to the method they think will be most effective for all students. Thus, regardless of your individual learning preference, you will probably be asked to engage in all types of learning. For instance, even though you consider yourself to be a “visual learner,” you will still probably have to write papers in some of your classes. Research suggests that it’s good for the brain to learn in new ways and that learning in different modalities can help learners become more well-rounded. Consider the following statistics on how much content students absorb through different learning methods:

10 percent of content they read

20 percent of content they hear

30 percent of content they visualize

50 percent of what they both visualize and hear

70 percent of what they say

90 percent of what they say and do

The range of these results underscores the importance of mixing up the ways in which you study and engage with learning materials.

Activity: Identifying Preferred Learning Styles

Objective

Define learning styles, and recognize your preferred learning style(s)

Directions

Now it’s time to consider your preferred learning style(s). Take the VARK Questionnaire here.

Review the types of learning preferences.

Identify three different classes and describe what types of activities you typically do in these classes. Which learning style(s) do these activities relate to?

Describe what you think your preferred learning style(s) is/are. How do you know?

Explain how you could apply your preferred learning style(s) to studying.

What might your preferred learning style(s) tell you about your interests? Consider which subjects and eventual careers you might like.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting your assignment.

Defining Multimodal Learning

While completing the learning-styles activity, you might have discovered that you prefer more than one learning style. Applying more than one learning style is known as multimodal learning. This strategy is useful not only for students who prefer to combine learning styles but also for those who may not know which learning style works best for them. It’s also a good way to mix things up and keep learning fun.

For example, consider how you might combine visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles to a biology class. For visual learning, you could create flash cards containing images of individual animals and the species name. For auditory learning, you could have a friend quiz you on the flash cards. For kinesthetic learning, you could move the flash cards around on a board to show a food web (food chain).

The following video will help you review the types of learning styles and see how they might relate to your study habits:

https://youtu.be/dvMex7KXLvM

The next assignment can help you extend and apply what you’ve learned about multimodal learning to current classes and studying.

Activity: Applying Learning Styles to Class

Objectives

Define multimodal learning

Apply your preferred learning styles to classroom scenarios

Directions

Review the three main learning styles and the definition of multimodal learning.

Identify a class you are currently taking that requires studying.

Describe how you could study for this class using visual, auditory, and kinesthetic/tactile learning skills.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting your activity.

Mansaray, David. "The Four Stages of Learning: The Path to Becoming an Expert." DavidMansaray.com. 2011. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

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The Learning Process. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Learning Styles. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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The Process of Learning - Kristos. Authored by: calikristos. Located at: https://youtu.be/G1eQ6JWAi9Q. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Discover Your Learning Style and Optimize Your Self Study. Authored by: Langfocus. Located at: https://youtu.be/dvMex7KXLvM. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

25

Class Preparation

To be prepared is half the victory. —Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish novelist and playwright

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify effective mental and physical strategies to prepare for an individual class session

Describe typical ratios of in-class to out-of-class work per credit hour

Kai feels like he is struggling through his first semester of college. He works long hours at a job every night, lives at home, and helps care for his younger sister. When he gets home from work, he is ready for bed and is often too tired for homework or studying. He has trouble focusing in class and occasionally drifts off during lectures. Kai knows he needs to change some of his habits, but he feels too overwhelmed to know where to start.

Identifying Ways to Physically and Mentally Prepare for Class

Lots of students like Kai have to balance a lot of responsibilities, such as work, school, and family. Such competing demands can make it hard to get the most out of class time and assignments. The effort you put in to succeed in college will pay off, though, and there are ways that you can physically and mentally prepare to excel in class.

Eat Healthy Meals and Snacks

Sometimes students get so busy that they skip meals like breakfast or lunch and then resort to junk food and coffee or caffeinated drinks to get them through. While a candy bar and soda might give you a temporary boost, you’ll soon feel tired and hungry again. Eating healthy meals and snacks that contain lean protein, vegetables, and fruits will give you the energy needed to accomplish all of your daily tasks. The United States Department of Agriculture MyPlate on Campus site includes tips on healthy eating, especially in the cafeteria setting. We’ll return to this topic later in the course.

Exercise Regularly

Similarly to healthy eating, exercising can give you energy throughout the day. Physical activity can also help prevent you from getting sick, which can lead to missed classes and work and lower grades. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), college-aged students should get at least 2.5 hours of exercise each week.

Get Enough Sleep

Sleeping is like recharging your personal battery each night for the next day. However, studies show that on some campuses like the University of Alabama, 60 percent of the student population doesn’t get adequate sleep. Although some students will need slightly more or less sleep, most should aim for eight hours every night. Along with getting enough sleep, students can practice healthy habits to sleep soundly, like avoiding caffeinated beverages before they go to bed and reading instead of using electronic devices before bed to help the body start to relax.[1]

Manage Stress

According to a recent American Psychological Association (APA) study, more than half of college students who used their school’s counseling services cited anxiety as the reason they sought help. Other stress points included relationship and academic problems. Stress management will look different for each student. For some students, the solution might include exercising. Other students might want to make time each week to meditate, go out with friends, spend time with pets, listen to music, or work on arts-and-crafts projects. Regardless of which activities you enjoy, it’s important to make time for stress management in your schedule.[2]

Talk to Guidance Counselors or Instructors

Guidance counselors and instructors are good resources to help you learn strategies for being successful both in and out of the classroom. For example, your guidance counselor might suggest dropping a class if you are currently taking too many, or your instructor might be able to give you additional studying resources for any concepts you find difficult, so you can catch up for future classes.

Sometimes student success can be as simple as changing your mindset. For example, if you identify what makes you happy and brings you positive thoughts, you might generate more motivation and enthusiasm for schoolwork and class time. The following video discusses other small goals students can set in order to succeed.

https://youtu.be/EPYlRx8PFko

After Kai decides to talk to his guidance counselor about his stress and difficulty balancing his activities, his guidance counselor recommends that Kai create a schedule. This will help him set time for homework, studying, work, and leisure activities so that he avoids procrastinating on his schoolwork. His counselor explains that if Kai sets aside specific time to study every day—rather than simply studying when he feels like he has the time—his study habits will become more regular, which will improve Kai’s learning. 

At the end of their session, Kai and his counselor have put together a rough schedule for Kai to further refine as he goes through the next couple of weeks.

Class- and Study-Time Ratios

Although Kai knows that studying is important and he is trying to keep up with homework, he really needs to work on time management. This is challenging for many college students, especially ones with lots of responsibilities outside of school. Unlike high school classes, college classes meet less often, and college students are expected to do more independent learning, homework, and studying. The amount of time students spend on coursework outside of the physical classroom will vary, depending on the course (how rigorous it is and how many credits it’s worth) and on the institution’s expectations. However, a general rule is that the ratio of classroom time to study time is 1:2 or 1:3. That means that for every hour you spend in class, you should plan to spend two to three hours out of class working independently on course assignments. For example, if your composition class meets for one hour, three times a week, you’re expected to devote from six to nine hours each week on reading assignments, writing assignments, etc.

If you account for all the classes you’re taking in a given semester, the study time really adds up—and if it sounds like a lot of work, it is! The only way to stay on top of the workload is by creating a schedule to help you manage your time. You might decide to use a weekly or monthly schedule—or both. Whatever you choose, the following tips can help you design a smart schedule that’s easy to follow and stick with.

Start with Fixed Time Commitments

First off, mark down the commitments that don’t allow any flexibility. These include class meetings, work hours, appointments, etc. Capturing the “fixed” parts of your schedule can help you see where there are blocks of time that can be used for other activities.

Kai’s Schedule

Kai is taking four classes: Spanish 101, US History, College Algebra, and Introduction to Psychology. He also has a fixed work schedule—he works 27 hours a week.

| Sunday | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday
8:00 AM |  |  |  |  |  |  |
9:00 AM |  | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 |
10:00 AM |  | US History I |  | US History I |  | US History I | Work
11:00 AM |  | College Algebra | Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) | College Algebra | Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) | College Algebra
12:00 PM |  |  |  |
1:00 PM |  | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) |  | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) |  | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) |
2:00 PM |  | Work | Work |
3:00 PM |  |
4:00 PM |  |
5:00 PM |  |  |  |  |
6:00 PM |  |  |  |  |
7:00 PM |  |  |  |  |
8:00 PM |  |  |  |  |  |  |

Consider Your Studying and Homework Habits

When are you most productive? Are you a morning person or a night owl? Block out your study times accordingly. You’ll also want to factor in any resources you might need. For instance, if you prefer to study very early or late in the day, and you’re working on a research paper, you might want to check the library hours to make sure it’s open when you need it.

Kai’s Schedule

Since Kai’s Spanish class starts his schedule at 9:00 every day, Kai decides to use that as the base for his schedule. He doesn’t usually have trouble waking up in the mornings (except for on the weekends), so he decides that he can do a bit of studying before class. His Spanish practice is often something he can do while eating or traveling, so this gives him a bit of leniency with his schedule.

Kai’s marked work in grey, classes in green, and dedicated study time in yellow:

| Sunday | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday
7:00 AM |  |  |  |  |  |  |
8:00 AM |  | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 |
9:00 AM |  | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 |
10:00 AM |  | US History I | Spanish 101 | US History I | Spanish 101 | US History I | Work
11:00 AM |  | College Algebra | Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) | College Algebra | Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) | College Algebra
12:00 PM |  | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101
1:00 PM | Spanish 101 | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) |  | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) |  | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) | Spanish 101
2:00 PM | US History I | Work | Work | Intro to Psych
3:00 PM |
4:00 PM |  |
5:00 PM |  | College Algebra | College Algebra | College Algebra |
6:00 PM |  |
7:00 PM |  |  |  |  |
8:00 PM |  | Intro to Psych |  | Intro to Psych |  |  |
9:00 PM |  | US History I | US History I |  |
10:00 PM |  |  |  |  |

Plan Ahead

Even if you prefer weekly over monthly schedules, write reminders for yourself and keep track of any upcoming projects, papers, or exams. You will also want to prepare for these assignments in advance. Most students eventually discover (the hard way) that cramming for exams the night before and waiting till the last minute to start on a term paper is a poor strategy. Procrastination creates a lot of unnecessary stress, and the resulting final product—whether an exam, lab report, or paper—is rarely your best work. Try simple things to break down large tasks, such as setting aside an hour or so each day to work on them during the weeks leading up to the deadline. If you get stuck, get help from your instructor early, rather than waiting until the day before an assignment is due.

Consider Leisure Time

It might seem impossible to leave room in your schedule for fun activities, but every student needs and deserves to socialize and relax on a regular basis. Try to make this time something you look forward to and count on, and use it as a reward for getting things done. You might reserve every Friday or Saturday evening for going out with friends, for example. Or, if a club you’re interested in meets on Thursdays during a time you’ve reserved for studying, try to reschedule your study time so you can do both.

Kai’s Schedule

When you look at Kai’s schedule, you can see that he’s left open Friday, Saturday, and Sunday evenings. While he plans on using Sundays to complete larger assignments when he needs to, he’s left his Friday and Saturday evenings open for leisure.

Now that you have considered ways to create a schedule, you can practice making one that will help you succeed academically. The California Community College’s Online Education site has a free source for populating a study schedule based on your individual course load.

Activity: Creating a Weekly Schedule

Objective

Calculate typical ratios of in-class to out-of-class work per credit hour

Directions

Refer to your class schedule, work schedule, and any other documents you have that indicate the day and time of your weekly obligations.

Using a 1:2 or 1:3 in-class–to–out-of-class-study ratio, determine how many hours per week you need to study for each class, given your current course schedule.

Create a weekly schedule in a digital document. You can use Word, Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, or any other format you prefer.

Be sure to include at least class sessions, homework and study time, and leisure time in your schedule.

When you are finished, write a paragraph summarizing how you created your class schedule and why you think it will be effective.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting your assignment.

"Sleepy Students Emphasize Studies, Social Activity to Detriment of Health, According to UA Study." UA News. 20 Aug 2014. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

"College Students: Coping with Stress and Anxiety on Campus." American Psychiatric Association Blogs. 27 Aug 2015. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

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Class Preparation. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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How to Balance School and Work: 5 Strategies for Academic Success. Authored by: Harvard Extension School. Located at: https://youtu.be/EPYlRx8PFko. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

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Six Tips for College Health and Safety. Provided by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/features/collegehealth/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

26

Class Attendance

Eighty percent of success is showing up. —Woody Allen, actor and comedian

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain why regular class attendance class is important

Identify effective listening strategies

Identify effective participation strategies

Compare different note-taking strategies and assess which is most effective for you

Convert notes to study guides

Evaluate different teaching styles and how your personal learning style fit with each

Identify strategies for obtaining content from a class you missed

Why Go to Class?

Students don’t always want to go to class. They may have required classes that they find difficult or don’t enjoy, or they may feel overwhelmed by other commitments or feel tired if they have early morning classes. However, even if instructors allow a certain number of unexcused absences, you should aim to attend every class session. Class attendance enhances class performance in the following ways:

Class participation: If you don’t attend class, you can’t participate in class activities. Class activities are usually part of your final grade, and they can help you apply concepts you learn from lectures and reading assignments.

Class interaction: If you rely on learning on your own (by doing the reading assignments outside of class, for example), you’ll miss out on class discussions with fellow students. Your classmates will often have the same questions as you, so going to class enables you to learn from them and ask your instructor about topics you all find difficult.

Interaction with the instructor: There is a reason why classes are taught by instructors. Instructors specialize in the subjects they teach, and they can provide extra insight and perspective on the material you’re studying. Going to class gives you the chance to take notes and ask questions about the lectures. Also, the more you participate, the more your instructors will come to know you and be aware of any help or support you might need. This will make you feel more comfortable to approach them outside of class if you need advice or are struggling with the course material.

Increased learning: Even though you will typically spend more time on coursework outside of the classroom, this makes class sessions even more valuable. Typically, in-class time will be devoted to the most challenging or key concepts covered in your textbooks. It’s important to know what these are so you can master them—also they’re likely to show up on exams. 

Effective Listening Strategies

Physically showing up to class is important (especially if attendance is taken), but what you do once you’re there is equally important. Getting the most out of class time involves listening effectively, which means more than simply hearing what your instructors say. Effective listening involves engaging with the speaker and the material you hear in an active way. To maximize the benefit you get from attending class, try to use the following active listening skills:

focus your full attention on the speaker

ask questions, either out loud or internally, in response to what is being said

paraphrase ideas in notes

listen nonjudgmentally

show empathy for the speaker

Restating what you hear is a powerful strategy for being an active listener, but it’s obviously impractical in a roomful of other students. That’s why taking notes is so important. Think of it as a “silent” way to restate what you’re taking in. Focus on capturing the key ideas and on paraphrasing what you hear (rather than writing things down verbatim). Putting ideas into your own words will deepen your understanding and strengthen your ability to recall the information later.

Preparing ahead of time will also make listening more useful and engaging. Do any assigned reading before coming to class, using effective reading strategies discussed elsewhere in this course.

Effective listening skills start outside of the classroom with the students coming prepared with questions and comments.

Effective Participation Strategies

Like listening, participating in class will help you get more out of class. It may also help you stand out as a student. Instructors notice the students who participate in class (and those who don’t), and participation is often a component of the final grade. “Participation” may include contributing to discussions, class activities, or projects. It means being actively involved. The following are some strategies for effective participation:

Be a team player: Although most students have classmates they prefer to work with, they should be willing to collaborate in different types of groups. Teamwork demonstrates that a student can adapt to and learn in different situations.

Share meaningful questions and comments: Some students speak up in class repeatedly if they know that participation is part of their grade. Although there isn’t necessarily anything wrong with this, it’s a good practice to focus on quality vs. quantity. For instance, a quieter student who raises her hand only twice during a discussion but provides thoughtful comments might be more noticeable to an instructor than a student who chimes in with everything that’s said.

Be prepared: As with listening, effective participation relies on coming to class prepared. Students should complete all reading assignments beforehand and also review any notes from the previous meeting. This way they can come to class ready to discuss and engage. Be sure to write down any questions or comments you have—this is an especially good strategy for quieter students or those who need practice thinking on their fee.

The resource Class Participation: More Than Just Raising Your Hand can help you evaluate what you need to work on in order to participate in class more effectively.

Note-Taking Strategies

Effective note-taking helps students retain what they learned in class so that they can use the material to study and build their knowledge and tackle more complex concepts later on. In fact, research indicates that there’s a 34 percent chance that students will remember key information if it’s present in their notes but only a 5 percent chance if it’s not.[1] It doesn’t matter whether you prefer to write brief summaries or make visual guides and diagrams in your notes. The important thing is to find a note-taking strategy that works for you. The following are a few recommendations to try out:

Stay organized: Keep your notes and handouts separate for each class. For example, you might have a different notebook and folder for each class, or a large notebook with a different tab for each class. This will save you the time of trying to organize and locate your notes when studying for an exam.

Use visual cues: Try highlighting, underlining, or drawing arrows or exclamation points next to any main or difficult concepts. This will call attention to these sections and remind you to spend more time reviewing them.

Group together similar concepts: Grouping or “chunking” material is a good way to make studying and memorization easier. You can try drawing the main concept and connecting it to smaller, related concepts or making an outline of the information. Either one can serve as an effective study guide.

Make notes legible: Some people have messy handwriting. However, writing as clearly as possible when you take notes will make it easier to review them later. It’s also helpful if you’re asked to share your notes with another student who missed class. If laptop use is permitted during class, you can also type your notes.

The following video addresses other specific strategies for note-taking:

https://youtu.be/bDoUMUJsvbM

Activity: Creating Notes and Study Guides

Objectives

Compare different note-taking strategies and assess which is most effective for you

Develop notes into study guides

Directions:

Review note-taking strategies.

Take notes during one of your classes.

Using the notes you took from class, create a study guide. “Creating Study Guides” from Utah State University’s Academic Success Center has examples of study-guide formats that might be useful. Or, you can develop your own.

Write a one-paragraph summary describing your note-taking strategy and explaining why you created the study guide the way you did.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting your assignment.

Teaching Styles

Just as students have different learning preferences—for visual, auditory, or kinesthetic/tactile modes—instructors have different teaching styles. Students can benefit from having instructors who teach in different ways because it can help them become more versatile as learners and able to work and communicate with a variety of people. Variety can be a challenge for students who prefer to learn in specific settings. However, learning to recognize different teaching styles can help students adjust to them and still be successful. Below are descriptions of some main teaching styles and how they relate to different learning modes: [2]

Authority style: Instructors with an authority style of teaching prefer to give lectures while standing in front of class, often doing a combination of talking and writing information on the board. Students are expected to listen and take notes. While the authority style may work for active/reflective students who can take notes to review later, it may be difficult for kinesthetic learners. These students could take advantage of their learning style by drawing study guides in their notes and creating and playing review games when they study with friends.

Demonstrator style: Instructors with a demonstrator style of teaching prefer to lecture, also, but they prefer to “show” students what they’re explaining, often by using visual aids such as Powerpoint presentations, handouts, and demos. While this teaching style may appeal to visual learners and auditory learners who can simultaneously hear and visualize the information, this approach may not be as appealing to kinesthetic learners. These students might offer to assist instructors during demonstrations, so they can be more active while learning.

Facilitator style: Instructors with a facilitator style rely heavily on class discussion, asking students to participate a lot while they provide prompts and guiding questions. While this learning style is effective for auditory learners, visual students may want to create concept maps in their notes, which they can review later, while kinesthetic/tactile learners may want to write their notes on index cards to use for studying outside of class.

Delegator style: Instructors with a delegator approach prefer to structure their classes around student-run projects and presentations—their own teaching takes a backseat to students teaching one another. While this learning style may be beneficial for auditory and kinesthetic learners, visual learners may need to take notes throughout the projects and presentations so that they have study guides they can visualize.

Hybrid style: Instructors with a hybrid teaching style use a combination of the learning styles above. For example, during an hourlong class session, they might schedule twenty minutes for a lecture, twenty minutes for class discussion, and twenty minutes for a class activity. While this teaching style can potentially appeal to all learning styles, some students may have trouble adjusting to the shifts in format or activities. Still, such classes—especially the group activities—provide opportunities for different learning styles: Visual learners might take notes or record everyone’s ideas, auditory learners could facilitate their group’s conversation, and the kinesthetic/tactile learners could be responsible for creating any props or presentations to share the group work with the rest of the class.

What type of teaching style do you think this instructor has?

If You Need to Miss a Class . . .

Class attendance is obviously important for academic success, but from time to time you may need to miss a class. Sometimes it can’t be helped. Since college classes have fewer sessions than high school, missing one class means missing more work. The following strategies can help you minimize the academic impact when can’t attend a class:

Plan in advance: Although nobody can plan to be sick, students should give their instructors advanced notice if they know they will need to miss class for something like a doctor’s appointment. This is not only respectful to the instructor, but he or she may be able to give you any handouts or assignments that you might otherwise miss. If you anticipate that class will be canceled on account of bad weather, etc., make sure you have all the materials, notes, etc. that you need to work at home. In college, “snow days” are rarely “free days”—i.e., expect that you will be responsible for all the work due on those days when school reopens.

Talk to fellow students: Ask to borrow class notes from one or two classmates who are reliable note takers. Be sure to also ask them about any announcements or assignments the instructor made during the class you missed.

Do the reading assignment(s) and any other homework. Take notes on any readings to be discussed in the class you missed. If you have questions on the reading or homework, seek help from your classmates. Completing the homework and coming prepared for the next session will demonstrate to your instructor that you are still dedicated to the class.

If you have to miss a class, find a trustworthy, responsible classmate who will lend you their notes.

"Effective Note Taking Strategies." Utah State University Academic Success Center. 1999. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

"What is Your Teaching Style? 5 Effective Teaching Methods for Your Classroom." Concordia Online Education. 5 Jan 2013. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

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Class Attendance. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Effective Notetaking. Authored by: The Learning Center at UH Maui College. Located at: https://youtu.be/bDoUMUJsvbM. License: CC BY: Attribution

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27

The Role of Memory

Memory is more indelible than ink. ―Anita Loos, author and screenwriter

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe strategies for deciding which course content to learn and retain

Differentiate between short-term and long-term memory, and describe the role of each in effective studying

Identify memory-strengthening strategies

Jennifer felt anxious about an upcoming history exam. This would be her first test in a college class, and she wanted to do well. Jennifer took lots of notes during class and while reading the textbook. In preparation for the exam, she had tried to review all five textbook chapters along with all of her notes. 

The morning of the exam, Jennifer felt nervous and unprepared. After so much studying and review, why wasn’t she more confident? 

Knowing What to Know

Jennifer’s situation shows that there really is such a thing as studying too much. Her mistake was in trying to master all of the course material. Whether you take one or more than one class, it’s simply impossible to retain every single particle of information you encounter in a textbook or lecture. And, instructors don’t generally give open-book exams or allow their students to preview the quizzes or tests ahead of time. So, how can you decide what to study and “know what to know”? The answer is to prioritize what you’re trying to learn and memorize, rather than trying to tackle all of it. Below are some strategies to help you do this.

Think about concepts rather than facts: From time to time, you’ll need to memorize cold, hard facts—like a list of math equations or a vocabulary list in a Spanish class. Most of the time, though, instructors will care much more that you are learning about the key concepts in a subject or course—i.e., how photosynthesis works, how to write a thesis statement, the causes of the French Revolution, and so on. For example, Jennifer might have been more successful with her studying—and felt better about it—if she had focused on the important historical developments (the “big ideas”) discussed in class, as opposed to trying to memorize a long list of dates and facts.

Take cues from your instructor: Pay attention to what your instructor writes on the board or includes in study guides and handouts. Although these may be short—just a list of words and phrases, say—they are likely core concepts that you’ll want to focus on. Also, instructors tend to refer to important concepts repeatedly during class, and they may even tell you what’s important to know before an exam or other assessment.

Look for key terms: Textbooks will often put key terms in bold or italics. These terms and their definitions are usually important and can help you remember larger concepts.

Use summaries: Textbooks often have summaries or study guides at the end of each chapter. These summaries are a good way to check in and see whether you grasp the main elements of the reading. If no summary is available, try to write your own—you’ll learn much more by writing about what you read than by reading alone.

Activity: Identifying the Main Course Content

Objectives

Describe strategies for deciding which course content to learn and retain

Directions

Describe several situations in which you struggled to learn and retain new material in a class. Was there a particular type of content that was more challenging compared with others?

Explain at least two strategies for identifying the main course content that you could use moving forward for studying.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting your assignment.

Short-Term and Long-Term Memory

Sometimes students will feel confident understanding new material they just learned. Then, weeks later before an exam, they find that they can only remember what the instructor covered during the last few days—the earlier material has vanished from the mind! What happened? Chances are that they didn’t consistently and regularly review the material, and what they initially learned never made it to long-term memory.

Research indicates that people forget 80 percent of what they learn only a day later.[1] This statistic may not sound very encouraging, given all that you’re expected to learn and remember as a college student. Really, though, it points to the importance of a different studying approach—besides waiting until the night before a final exam to review a semester’s worth of readings and notes. When you learn something new, the goal is to “lock it in” and move it from short-term memory, where it starts out, to long-term memory, where it can be accessed much later (like at the end of the semester or maybe years from now). Below are some strategies for transferring short-term memory to long-term memory:

Start reviewing new material immediately: Remember that people typically forget a significant amount of new information not too long after learning it. As a student, you can benefit from starting to study new material right away. If you’re introduced to new concepts in class, for example, don’t wait to start reviewing your notes and doing the related reading assignments—the sooner the better.

Study frequently for shorter periods of time: Once information becomes a part of long-term memory, you’re more likely to remember it. If you want to improve the odds of recalling course material by the time of an exam (or a future class, say), try reviewing it a little bit every day. Building up your knowledge and recall this way can also help you avoid needing to “cram” and feeling overwhelmed by everything you’ve may have forgotten.

Use repetition: This strategy is linked to studying material frequently for shorter periods of time. You may not remember when or how you learned skills like riding a bike or tying your shoes. Mastery came with practice, and at some point the skills became second nature. Academic learning is no different: If you spend enough time with important course concepts and practice them often, you will know them in the same way you know how to ride a bike—almost without thinking about them.

Studying notes and writing questions or comments about what you learned right after class can help keep new information fresh in your mind.

Strengthening Your Memory

We’ve discussed the importance of zeroing in on the main concepts you learn in class and of transferring them from short-term to long-term memory. But how can you work to strengthen your overall memory? Some people have stronger memories than others, but memorizing new information takes work for anyone. Below are some strategies that can aid memory:

Incorporate visuals: Visual aids like note cards, concept maps, and highlighted text are ways of making information stand out. Because they are shorter and more concise, they have the advantage of making the information to be memorized seem more manageable and less daunting (than an entire textbook chapter, for example). Some students write key terms on note cards and hang them around their desk or mirror so that they routinely see them and study them without even trying.

Create mnemonics: Memory devices known as mnemonics can help students retain information while only needing to remember a unique phrase or letter pattern that stands out. For example, the mnemonic “ROYGBIV” could help students remember the order of the colors of a rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet).

Get quality sleep: Although some people require more or less sleep than the recommended amount, most people should aim for six–eight hours every night. School puts a lot of demands on the brain, and, like tired muscles after a long workout, your brain needs to rest after being exercised and taking in all sorts of new information during the day. A good night’s rest can helps you remember more and feel prepared for learning the next day.

Connect new information to old information: Take stock of what you already know—information that’s already stored in long-term memory—and use it as a foundation for learning newer information. It’s easier to remember new information if you can connect it to old information or to a familiar frame of reference. For example, if you are taking a sociology class and are learning about different types of social groups, you may be able to think of examples from your own experience that relate to the different types.

Memory also relies on effective studying behaviors, like choosing where you study, how you study, and with whom you study. The following video provides specific studying strategies that can improve your memory.

https://youtu.be/V27wtqYYCsk

Student Counseling Service. "Long and Short Term Memory." The University of Chicago. 2016. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

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28

Active Learning

We learn more by looking for the answer to a question and not finding it than we do from learning the answer itself. —Lloyd Alexander, author

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define active learning

Explain the value of hands-on, interactive learning

Identify resources for applying active learning strategies to your studies, both in and out of the classroom

Megan is currently taking two classes: geology and American literature. In her geology class, the instructor lectures for the full class time and gives reading assignments. In Megan’s literature class, however, the instructor relies on class discussions, small group discussions, and occasionally even review games. Megan enjoys her literature class, but she struggles to feel engaged and interested in geology.

What strategies can Megan use to stay motivated and involved in both of her courses?

Active Learning in Class

Think about the college classes you’ve taken so far. Like Megan, you may feel like it’s a mixed bag: you probably enjoyed the courses with a variety of teaching styles and learning activities the most. Even if you’re a quieter, more reserved student who dislikes lots of group discussions, you probably prefer to have some class projects or writing assignments rather than lectures alone. Group projects, discussions, and writing are examples of active learning, because they involve doing something. Active learning happens when students participate in their education through activities that enhance learning. Those activities may involve just thinking about what you’re learning. Active learning can take place both in and out of the classroom. The following are examples of activities that can facilitate active engagement in the classroom.

Class discussions: Class discussions can help students stay focused because they feature different voices besides that of the instructor. Students can also hear one another’s questions and comments and learn from one another. Such discussions may involve the entire class, or the instructor may organize smaller groups, giving quieter students a greater chance to talk. Another method is to create online discussion boards so that students have more time to develop their ideas and comments and keep the conversation going.

Writing assignments: Instructors may ask students to write short reaction papers or journal entries about lessons or reading assignments. Such assignments can help students review or reflect on what they just learned to help them understand and remember the material, and also provide a means of communicating questions and concerns to their instructors.

Student-led teaching: Many instructors believe that a true test of whether students understand concepts is being able to teach the material to others. For that reason, instructors will sometimes have students work in groups and research a topic or review assigned readings, and then prepare a minipresentation and teach it to the rest of the class. This activity can help students feel more accountable for their learning and work harder, since classmates will be relying on them.

Group discussions are examples of active learning that encourage students to participate in their education.

Active Learning on Your Own

Many instructors conduct their classes mainly through lectures. The lecture remains the most pervasive teaching format across the field of higher education. One reason is that the lecture is an efficient way for the instructor to control the content, organization, and pace of a presentation, particularly in a large group. However, there are drawbacks to this “information-transfer” approach, where the instructor does all the talking and the students quietly listen: student have a hard time paying attention from start to finish; the mind wanders. Also, current cognitive science research shows that adult learners need an opportunity to practice newfound skills and newly introduced content. Lectures can set the stage for that interaction or practice, but lectures alone don’t foster student mastery. While instructors typically speak 100–200 words per minute, students hear only 50–100 of them. Moreover, studies show that students retain 70 percent of what they hear during the first ten minutes of class and only 20 percent of what they hear during the last ten minutes of class.[1]

Thus it is especially important for students in lecture-based courses to engage in active learning outside of the classroom. But it’s also true for other kinds of college courses—including the ones that have active learning opportunities in class. Why? Because college students spend more time working (and learning) independently and less time in the classroom with the instructor and peers. Also, much of one’s coursework consists of reading and writing assignments. How can these learning activities be active? The following are very effective strategies to help you be more engaged with, and get more out of, the learning you do outside the classroom:

Write in your books: You can underline and circle key terms, or write questions and comments in the margins of their books. The writing serves as a visual aid for studying and makes it easier for you to remember what you’ve read or what you’d like to discuss in class. If you are borrowing a book or want to keep it unmarked so you can resell it later, try writing key words and notes on Post-its and sticking them on the relevant pages.

Annotate a text: Annotations typically mean writing a brief summary of a text and recording the works-cited information (title, author, publisher, etc.). This is a great way to “digest” and evaluate the sources you’re collecting for a research paper, but it’s also invaluable for shorter assignments and texts, since it requires you to actively think and write about what you read. The activity, below, will give you practice annotating texts.

Create mind maps: Mind maps are effective visuals tools for students, as they highlight the main points of readings or lessons. Think of a mind map as an outline with more graphics than words. For example, if a student were reading an article about America’s First Ladies, she might write, “First Ladies” in a large circle in the center of a piece of paper. Connected to the middle circle would be lines or arrows leading to smaller circles with visual representations of the women discussed in the article. Then, these circles might branch out to even smaller circles containing the attributes of each of these women.

The following video discusses the process of creating mind maps further and shows how they can be a helpful strategy for active engagement:

https://youtu.be/L0XzZCd2tPE

In addition to the strategies described above, the following are additional ways to engage in active reading and learning:

Work when you are fully awake, and give yourself enough time to read a text more than once.  

Read with a pen or highlighter in hand, and underline or highlight significant ideas as you read.

Interact with the ideas in the margins ( summarize ideas; ask questions ; paraphrase difficult sentences; make personal connections ; answer questions asked earlier; challenge the author; etc.).

As you read, keep the following in mind :

What is the CONTEXT in which this text was written? (This writing contributes to what topic, discussion, or controversy?  Context is biggerthan this one written text.)

Who is the intended AUDIENCE? (There’s often more than one intended audience.)

What is the author’s PURPOSE? To entertain? To explain? To persuade?  (There’s usually more than one purpose, and essays almost always have an element of persuasion.)

How is this writing ORGANIZED? Compare and contrast? Classification? Chronological?  Cause and effect?  (There’s often more than one organizational form.)

What is the author’s TONE? (What are the emotions behind the words? Are there places where the tone changes or shifts?)

What TOOLS does the author use to accomplish her/his purpose?  Facts and figures? Direct quotations? Fallacies in logic? Personal experience? Repetition? Sarcasm? Humor? Brevity?

What is the author’s THESIS—the main argument or idea, condensed into one or two sentences?

Foster an attitude of intellectual curiosity. You might not love all of the writing you’re asked to read and analyze, but you should have something interesting to say about it, even if that “something” is critical.

Activity: Annotating Texts

Objective

Identify resources for applying active learning strategies to your studies

Directions

Watch the following video on annotating texts:

https://youtu.be/GkZtC3o0AjE

Read the article “Looking for Trouble: Finding Your Way into a Writing Assignment” by Catherine Savini.

Develop an annotation of the chapter.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting your assignment.

Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Teaching Center. "Active Learning." Columbia.edu. n.d. Web. 10 Feb 2016.

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Active Learning. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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How to do Active Reading. Authored by: Chauna Ramsey. Provided by: OER Commons. Located at: https://www.oercommons.org/courses/how-to-do-active-reading. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

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How To Use A Mind Map. Authored by: Two-Point-Four. Located at: https://youtu.be/L0XzZCd2tPE. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Annotate it!. Authored by: Janene Davison. Located at: https://youtu.be/GkZtC3o0AjE. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

8

Study Skills and Classroom Success

29

Reading Strategies

To read without reflecting is like eating without digesting. —Edmund Burke, author and philosopher

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify common types of reading tasks assigned in a college class

Describe the purpose and instructor expectations of academic reading

Identify effective reading strategies for academic texts: previewing, reading, summarizing, reviewing

Explore strategies for approaching specialized texts, such as math, and specialized platforms, such as online text

Identify vocabulary-building techniques to strengthen your reading comprehension

Types of College Reading Materials

As a college student, you will eventually choose a major or focus of study. In your first year or so, though, you’ll probably have to complete “core” or required classes in different subjects. For example, even if you plan to major in English, you may still have to take at least one science, history, and math class. These different academic disciplines (and the instructors who teach them) can vary greatly in terms of the materials that students are assigned to read. Not all college reading is the same. So, what types can you expect to encounter?

Textbooks

Probably the most familiar reading material in college is the textbook. These are academic books, usually focused on one discipline, and their primary purpose is to educate readers on a particular subject—”Principles of Algebra,” for example, or “Introduction to Business.” It’s not uncommon for instructors to use one textbook as the primary text for an entire course. Instructors typically assign chapters as readings and may include any word problems or questions in the textbook, too.

Articles

Instructors may also assign academic articles or news articles. Academic articles are written by people who specialize in a particular field or subject, while news articles may be from recent newspapers and magazines. For example, in a science class, you may be asked to read an academic article on the benefits of rainforest preservation, whereas in a government class, you may be asked to read an article summarizing a recent presidential debate. Instructors may have you read the articles online or they may distribute copies in class or electronically.

The chief difference between news and academic articles is the intended audience of the publication. News articles are mass media: They are written for a broad audience, and they are published in magazines and newspapers that are generally available for purchase at grocery stores or bookstores. They may also be available online. Academic articles, on the other hand, are usually published in scholarly journals with fairly small circulations.  While you won’t be able to purchase individual journal issues from Barnes and Noble, public and school libraries do make these journal issues and individual articles available.  It’s common to access academic articles through online databases hosted by libraries.

Literature and Nonfiction Books

Instructors use literature and nonfiction books in their classes to teach students about different genres, events, time periods, and perspectives. For example, a history instructor might ask you to read the diary of a girl who lived during the Great Depression so you can learn what life was like back then. In an English class, your instructor might assign a series of short stories written during the 1960s by different American authors, so you can compare styles and thematic concerns.

Literature includes short stories, novels or novellas, graphic novels, drama, and poetry. Nonfiction works include creative nonfiction—narrative stories told from real life—as well as history, biography, and reference materials. Textbooks and scholarly articles are specific types of nonfiction; often their purpose is to instruct, whereas other forms of nonfiction be written to inform, to persuade, or to entertain.

Purpose of Academic Reading

Casual reading across genres, from books and magazines to newspapers and blogs, is something students should be encouraged to do in their free time because it can be both educational and fun. In college, however, instructors generally expect students to read resources that have particular value in the context of a course. Why is academic reading beneficial?

Information comes from reputable sources: Web sites and blogs can be a source of insight and information, but not all are useful as academic resources. They may be written by people or companies whose main purpose is to share an opinion or sell you something. Academic sources such as textbooks and scholarly journal articles, on the other hand, are usually written by experts in the field and have to pass stringent peer review requirements in order to get published.

Learn how to form arguments: In most college classes except for creating writing, when instructors ask you to write a paper, they expect it to be argumentative in style. This means that the goal of the paper is to research a topic and develop an argument about it using evidence and facts to support your position. Since many college reading assignments (especially journal articles) are written in a similar style, you’ll gain experience studying their strategies and learning to emulate them.

Exposure to different viewpoints: One purpose of assigned academic readings is to give students exposure to different viewpoints and ideas. For example, in an ethics class, you might be asked to read a series of articles written by medical professionals and religious leaders who are pro-life or pro-choice and consider the validity of their arguments. Such experience can help you wrestle with ideas and beliefs in new ways and develop a better understanding of how others’ views differ from your own.

Activity: Describing the Purpose of Academic Reading

Objective

Describe the purpose of academic reading and what an instructor might expect of you after reading

Directions

Review the main types of academic reading and the purpose of academic reading.

Imagine you are an instructor for a class. This could be a class you are currently taking or one you would like to see offered.

Identify three academic readings that you would assign to your students.

Explain why you would assign these works and what you would expect your students to learn or do after reading them.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

Reading Strategies for Academic Texts

Recall from the Active Learning section that effective reading requires more engagement than just reading the words on the page. In order to learn and retain what you read, it’s a good idea to do things like circling key words, writing notes, and reflecting. Actively reading academic texts can be challenging for students who are used to reading for entertainment alone, but practicing the following steps will get you up to speed:

Preview: You can gain insight from an academic text before you even begin the reading assignment. For example, if you are assigned a nonfiction book, read the title, the back of the book, and table of contents. Scanning this information can give you an initial idea of what you’ll be reading and some useful context for thinking about it. You can also start to make connections between the new reading and knowledge you already have, which is another strategy for retaining information.

Read: While you read an academic text, you should have a pen or pencil in hand. Circle or highlight key concepts. Write questions or comments in the margins or in a notebook.  This will help you remember what you are reading and also build a personal connection with the subject matter.

Summarize: After you an read academic text, it’s worth taking the time to write a short summary—even if your instructor doesn’t require it. The exercise of jotting down a few sentences or a short paragraph capturing the main ideas of the reading is enormously beneficial: it not only helps you understand and absorb what you read but gives you ready study and review materials for exams and other writing assignments.

Review: It always helps to revisit what you’ve read for a quick refresher. It may not be practical to thoroughly reread assignments from start to finish, but before class discussions or tests, it’s a good idea to skim through them to identify the main points, reread any notes at the ends of chapters, and review any summaries you’ve written.

The following video covers additional active reading strategies readers can use before, during, and after the reading process.

https://youtu.be/faZF9x4A2Vs

Reading Strategies for Specialized Texts and Online Resources

In college it’s not uncommon to experience frustration with reading assignments from time to time. Because you’re doing more reading on your own outside the classroom, and with less frequent contact with instructors than you had in high school, it’s possible you’ll encounter readings that contain unfamiliar vocabulary or don’t readily make sense. Different disciplines and subjects have different writing conventions and styles, and it can take some practice to get to know them. For example, scientific articles follow a very particular format and typically contain the following sections: an abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussions. If you are used to reading literary works, such as graphic novels or poetry, it can be disorienting to encounter these new forms of writing.

Below are some strategies for making different kinds of texts more approachable.

Get to Know the Conventions

Academic texts, like scientific studies and journal articles, may have sections that are new to you. If you’re not sure what an “abstract” is, research it online or ask your instructor. Understanding the meaning and purpose of such conventions is not only helpful for reading comprehension but for writing, too.

Look up and Keep Track of Unfamiliar Terms and Phrases

Have a good college dictionary such as Merriam-Webster handy (or find it online) when you read complex academic texts, so you can look up the meaning of unfamiliar words and terms. Many textbooks also contain glossaries or “key terms” sections at the ends of chapters or the end of the book. If you can’t find the words you’re looking for in a standard dictionary, you may need one specially written for a particular discipline. For example, a medical dictionary would be a good resource for a course in anatomy and physiology.

If you circle or underline terms and phrases that appear repeatedly, you’ll have a visual reminder to review and learn them. Repetition helps to lock in these new words and their meaning get them into long-term memory, so the more you review them the more you’ll understand and feel comfortable using them.

Look for Main Ideas and Themes

As a college student, you are not expected to understand every single word or idea presented in a reading, especially if you haven’t discussed it in class yet. However, you will get more out of discussions and feel more confident about asking questions if you can identify the main idea or thesis in a reading. The thesis statement can often (but not always) be found in the introductory paragraph, and it may be introduced with a phrase like “In this essay I argue that . . .” Getting a handle on the overall reason an author wrote something (“to prove X” or “to explore Y,” for instance) gives you a framework for understanding more of the details. It’s also useful to keep track of any themes you notice in the writing. A theme may be a recurring idea, word, or image that strikes you as interesting or important: “This story is about men working in a gloomy factory, but the author keeps mentioning birds and bats and windows. Why is that??”

Get the Most of Online Reading

Reading online texts presents unique challenges for some students. For one thing, you can’t readily circle or underline key terms or passages on the screen with a pencil. For another, there can be many tempting distractions—just a quick visit to amazon.com or Facebook.

While there’s no substitute for old-fashioned self-discipline, you can take advantage of the following tips to make online reading more efficient and effective:

Where possible, download the reading as a PDF, Word document, etc., so you can read it offline.

Get one of the apps that allow you to disable your social media sites for specified periods of time.

Adjust your screen to avoid glare and eye strain, and change the text font to be less distracting (for those essays written in Comic Sans).

Install an annotation tool in your Web browser so you can highlight and make notes on online text. One to try is hypothes.is. A low-tech option is to have a notebook handy to write in as you read.

Look for Reputable Online Sources

Professors tend to assign reading from reputable print and online sources, so you can feel comfortable referencing such sources in class and for writing assignments. If you are looking for online sources independently, however, devote some time and energy to critically evaluating the quality of the source before spending time reading any resources you find there. Find out what you can about the author (if one is listed), the Web site, and any affiliated sponsors it may have. Check that the information is current and accurate against similar information on other pages. Depending on what you are researching, sites that end in “.edu” (indicating an “education” site such as a college, university, or other academic institution) tend to be more reliable than “.com” sites.

Pay Attention to Visual Information

Images in textbooks or journals usually contain valuable information to help you more deeply grasp a topic.  Graphs and charts, for instance, help show the relationship between different kinds of information or data—how a population changes over time, how a virus spreads through a population, etc.

Data-rich graphics can take longer to “read” than the text around them because they present a lot of information in a condensed form.  Give yourself plenty of time to study these items, as they often provide new and lasting insights that are easy to recall later (like in the middle of an exam on that topic!).

Vocabulary-Building Techniques

Gaining confidence with unique terminology used in different disciplines can help you be more successful in your courses and in college generally. In addition to the suggestions described earlier, such as looking up unfamiliar words in dictionaries, the following are additional vocabulary-building techniques for you to try:

Read Everything and Read Often

Reading frequently both in and out of the classroom will help strengthen your vocabulary. Whenever you read a book, magazine, newspaper, blog, or any other resource, keep a running list of words you don’t know. Look up the words as you encounter them and try to incorporate them into your own speaking and writing.

Make Connections to Words You Already Know

You may be familiar with the “looks like . . . sounds like” saying that applies to words. It means that you can sometimes look at a new word and guess the definition based on similar words whose meaning you know. For example, if you are reading a biology book on the human body and come across the word malignant, you might guess that this word means something negative or broken if you already know the word malfunction, which share the “mal-” prefix.

Make Index Cards

If you are studying certain words for a test, or you know that certain phrases will be used frequently in a course or field, try making flashcards for review. For each key term, write the word on one side of an index card and the definition on the other. Drill yourself, and then ask your friends to help quiz you.

Developing a strong vocabulary is similar to most hobbies and activities. Even experts in a field continue to encounter and adopt new words. The following video discusses more strategies for improving vocabulary.

https://youtu.be/nfbY0EK7JEY

Words are sneaky, charming, and intriguing. The more complex our vocabularies, the more complex our thoughts are, too.

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Reading Strategies. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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College Reading Strategies. Authored by: The Learning Center at the University of Hawaii Maui College. Located at: https://youtu.be/faZF9x4A2Vs. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Vocabulary Reading Strategies. Authored by: Lindsey Thompson. Located at: https://youtu.be/nfbY0EK7JEY. License: CC BY: Attribution

30

Writing Strategies

It ain’t whatcha write, it’s the way atcha write it. —Jack Kerouac, author

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the purpose of writing assignments and what an instructor might expect to see from your writing

Identify common types of writing tasks in a college class

Understand and utilize writing-process steps for the development of academic writing

Differentiate between revision and proofreading, and explain the value of each

Identify strategies for ethical use of sources in writing

Why Do Writing Skills Matter?

Obviously you can write. And in the age of Facebook and smartphones, you may be writing all the time—perhaps more often than speaking. Many students today are awash in text like no other generation before.

So why spend yet more time and attention on writing skills? Research shows that deliberate practice—that is, close focus on improving one’s skills—makes all the difference in how one performs. Revisiting the craft of writing—especially early in college—will improve your writing much more than simply producing page after page in the same old way. Becoming an excellent communicator will save you a lot of time and hassle in your studies, advance your career, and promote better relationships and a higher quality of life off the job. Honing your writing is a good use of your scarce time.

Also, consider this: a recent survey of employers conducted by the Association of American Colleges and Universities found that 89 percent of employers say that colleges and universities should place more emphasis on “the ability to effectively communicate orally and in writing.”[1] It was the single-most favored skill in this survey. In addition, several of the other valued skills are grounded in written communication: “Critical thinking and analytical reasoning skills” (81 percent); “The ability to analyze and solve complex problems” (75 percent); and “The ability to locate, organize, and evaluate information from multiple sources” (68 percent). This emphasis on communication probably reflects the changing reality of work in the professions. Employers also reported that employees will have to “take on more responsibilities,” “use a broader set of skills,” “work harder to coordinate with other departments,” face “more complex” challenges, and mobilize “higher levels of learning and knowledge.”[2]

If you want  to be a professional who interacts frequently with others, you have to be someone who can anticipate and solve complex problems and coordinate your work with others,[3] all of which depend on effective communication.

The pay-off from improving your writing comes much sooner than graduation. Suppose you complete about 40 classes for a 120-credit bachelors’ degree, and—averaging across writing-intensive and non-writing-intensive courses—you produce about 2,500 words of formal writing per class. Even with that low estimate, you’ll write 100,000 words during your college career. That’s roughly equivalent to a 330-page book.

Spending a few hours sharpening your writing skills will make those 100,000 words much easier and more rewarding to write. All of your professors care about good writing.

It’s Different from High School

Because most professors have different expectations, it can be tricky knowing what exactly they’re looking for. Pay attention to the comments they leave on your paper, and make sure to use these as a reference for your next assignment. I try to pay attention and adapt to the professor’s style and preferences. —Aly Button, SUNY student

By the end of high school you probably mastered many of the key conventions of standard academic English, such as paragraphing, sentence-level mechanics, and the use of thesis statements. The essay portion of the SAT measures important skills such as organizing evidence within paragraphs that relate to a clear, consistent thesis, and choosing words and sentence structures to effectively convey your meaning. These practices are foundational, and your teachers have given you a wonderful gift in helping you master them. However, college writing assignments require you to apply those skills to new intellectual challenges. Professors assign papers because they want you to think rigorously and deeply about important questions in their fields.

To your instructors, writing is for working out complex ideas, not just explaining them. A paper that would earn a top score on the SAT might only get a C or D in a college class if it doesn’t show original and ambitious thinking.

Professors look at you as independent junior scholars and expect you to write as someone who has a genuine, driving interest in tackling a complex question. They envision you approaching an assignment without a preexisting thesis. They expect you to look deep into the evidence, consider several alternative explanations, and work out an original, insightful argument that you actually care about. 

Activity: Examining Your Writing Assignments

Objective

Describe the purpose of writing assignments and what an instructor might expect to see from your writing

Identify common types of writing tasks in a college class

Directions

Review the syllabi for courses you’re taking this term. Make note of the writing-based assignments you’ll be asked to complete for each course you’re taking. For each one, identify the following:

what kind of writing task it is (essay, journal, memo, annotated bibliography, online discussion, scientific report, etc.)

how much of your course grade it represents

how much time you estimate it will take you to complete

what the purpose of the assignment seems to be – why it is a graded requirement of the class

Compare the list you’ve generated with a small group of your classmates. How do their lists of writing assignments compare to your own? What are some common factors across writing assignments? What are some notable differences?

What to Do With Essay Assignments

Writing assignments can be as varied as the instructors who assign them. Some assignments are explicit about what exactly you’ll need to do, in what order, and how it will be graded. Some assignments are very open-ended, leaving you to determine the best path toward answering the project. Most fall somewhere in the middle, containing details about some aspects but leaving other assumptions unstated. It’s important to remember that your first resource for getting clarification about an assignment is your instructor—she or he will be very willing to talk out ideas with you, to be sure you’re prepared at each step to do well with the writing.

Most writing in college will be a direct response to class materials—an assigned reading, a discussion in class, an experiment in a lab. Generally speaking, these writing tasks can be divided into three broad categories.

Summary Assignments

Being asked to summarize a source is a common task in many types of writing. It can also seem like a straightforward task: simply restate, in shorter form, what the source says. A lot of advanced skills are hidden in this seemingly simple assignment, however.

An effective summary does the following:

reflects your accurate understanding of a source’s thesis or purpose

differentiates between major and minor ideas in a source

demonstrates your ability to identify key phrases to quote

demonstrates your ability to effectively paraphrase most of the source’s ideas

captures the tone, style, and distinguishing features of a source

does not reflect your personal opinion about the source

That last point is often the most challenging: we are opinionated creatures, by nature, and it can be very difficult to keep our opinions from creeping into a summary, which is meant to be completely neutral.

In college-level writing, assignments that are only summary are rare. That said, many types of writing tasks contain at least some element of summary, from a biology report that explains what happened during a chemical process, to an analysis essay that requires you to explain what several prominent positions about gun control are, as a component of comparing them against one another.

Defined-Topic Assignments

Many writing tasks will ask you to address a particular topic or a narrow set of topic options. Even with the topic identified, however, it can sometimes be difficult to determine what aspects of the writing will be most important when it comes to grading.

Often, the handout or other written text explaining the assignment—what professors call the assignment prompt—will explain the purpose of the assignment, the required parameters (length, number and type of sources, referencing style, etc.), and the criteria for evaluation. Sometimes, though—especially when you are new to a field—you will encounter the baffling situation in which you comprehend every single sentence in the prompt but still have absolutely no idea how to approach the assignment. No one is doing anything wrong in a situation like that. It just means that further discussion of the assignment is in order. Below are some tips:

Focus on the verbs. Look for verbs like compare, explain, justify, reflect, or the all-purpose analyze. You’re not just producing a paper as an artifact; you’re conveying, in written communication, some intellectual work you have done. So the question is, what kind of thinking are you supposed to do to deepen your learning?

Put the assignment in context. Many professors think in terms of assignment sequences. For example, a social science professor may ask you to write about a controversial issue three times: first, arguing for one side of the debate; second, arguing for another; and finally, from a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective, incorporating text produced in the first two assignments. A sequence like that is designed to help you think through a complex issue. If the assignment isn’t part of a sequence, think about where it falls in the span of the course (early, midterm, or toward the end), and how it relates to readings and other assignments. For example, if you see that a paper comes at the end of a three-week unit on the role of the Internet in organizational behavior, then your professor likely wants you to synthesize that material in your own way.

Try a free-write. A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. That doesn’t sound very “free”; it actually sounds kind of coerced, right? The “free” part is what you write—it can be whatever comes to mind. Professional writers use free-writing to get started on a challenging (or distasteful) writing task or to overcome writer’s block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you can’t help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free write are all variations on “I don’t understand this” or “I’d really rather be doing something else,” eventually you’ll write something like “I guess the main point of this is . . . ,” and—booyah!—you’re off and running.

Ask for clarification. Even the most carefully crafted assignments may need some verbal clarification, especially if you’re new to a course or field. Try to convey to your instructor that you want to learn and you’re ready to work, and not just looking for advice on how to get an A.

Although the topic may be defined, you can’t just grind out four or five pages of discussion, explanation, or analysis. It may seem strange, but even when you’re asked to “show how” or “illustrate,” you’re still being asked to make an argument. You must shape and focus that discussion or analysis so that it supports a claim that you discovered and formulated and that all of your discussion and explanation develops and supports. 

Defined-topic writing assignments are used primarily to identify your familiarity with the subject matter.

Undefined-Topic Assignments

Another writing assignment you’ll potentially encounter is one in which the topic may be only broadly identified (“water conservation” in an ecology course, for instance, or “the Dust Bowl” in a U.S. History course), or even completely open (“compose an argumentative research essay on a subject of your choice”).

Where defined-topic essays demonstrate your knowledge of the content, undefined-topic assignments are used to demonstrate your skills—your ability to perform academic research, to synthesize ideas, and to apply the various stages of the writing process.

The first hurdle with this type of task is to find a focus that interests you. Don’t just pick something you feel will be “easy to write about”—that almost always turns out to be a false assumption. Instead, you’ll get the most value out of, and find it easier to work on, a topic that intrigues you personally in some way.

The same getting-started ideas described for defined-topic assignments will help with these kinds of projects, too.  You can also try talking with your instructor or a writing tutor (at your college’s writing center) to help brainstorm ideas and make sure you’re on track. You want to feel confident that you’ve got a clear idea of what it means to be successful in the writing and not waste time working in a direction that won’t be fruitful.

The Writing Process

The following video provides an excellent overview of research essays, one of the most common kinds of writing assignments you’re likely to encounter in college.

https://youtu.be/6Jgwc3sXLCc

No writer, not even a professional, composes a perfect draft in her first attempt. Every writer fumbles and has to work through a series of steps to arrive at a high-quality finished project.

You may have encountered these steps as assignments in classes—draft a thesis statement; complete an outline; turn in a rough draft; participate in a peer review. The further you get into higher education, the less often these steps will be completed as part of class.

That’s not to say that you won’t still need to follow these steps on your own time. It helps to recognize that these steps, commonly referred to as the writing process, aren’t rigid and prescribed.  Instead, it can be liberating to see them as flexible, allowing you to adapt them to your own personal habits, preferences, and the topic at hand.  You will probably find that your process changes, depending on the type of writing you’re doing and your comfort level with the subject matter.

Consider the following flowchart of the writing process:

The flowchart is a helpful visualization of the steps involved, outside of the classroom, toward completing an essay.  Keep in mind that it isn’t always a linear process, though. It’s okay to loop back to earlier steps again if needed. For instance, after completing a draft, you may realize that a significant aspect of the topic is missing, which sends you back to researching.  Or the process of research may lead you to an unexpected subtopic, which shifts your focus and leads you to revise your thesis. Embrace the circular path that writing often takes!

Revision and Proofreading

These last two stages of the writing process are often confused with each other, but they mean very different things, and serve very different purposes.

Revision is literally “reseeing.” It asks a writer to step away from a piece of work for a significant amount of time and return later to see it with new eyes.  This is why the process of producing multiple drafts of an essay is so important.  It allows some space in between, to let thoughts mature, connections to arise, and gaps in content or an argument to appear. It’s also difficult to do, especially given that most college students face tight time lines to get big writing projects done. Still, there are some tricks to help you “resee” a piece of writing when you’re short on time, such as reading a paper backward, sentence by sentence, and reading your work aloud.  Both are ways of reconceptualizing your own writing so you approach it from a fresh perspective. Whenever possible, though, build in at least a day or two to set a draft aside before returning to work on the final version.

Proofreading, on the other hand, is the very last step taken before turning in a project. This is the point where spelling, grammar, punctuation, and formatting all take center stage.

Learn these rules, and if you hate them, learn to love them. In college, writing stops being about “how well did you understand fill-in-the-blank” and becomes “how professionally and strongly do you argue your point.” Professionalism, I have found, is the key to the real world, and college is, in part, preparing you for it. If you do not learn how to write in a way that projects professionalism (i.e., these rules), then expect to get, at best, Cs on your papers. —Kaethe Leonard, SUNY student

A person can be the best writer in the world and still be a terrible proofreader. It’s okay not to memorize every rule out there, but know where to turn for help. Utilizing the grammar-check feature of your word processor is a good start, but it won’t solve every issue (and may even cause a few itself).

Your campus tutoring or writing center is a good place to turn for support and help.  They will NOT proofread your paper for you, but they will offer you strategies for how to spot issues that are a pattern in your writing.

Finding a trusted person to help you edit is perfectly ethical, as long as that person offers you advice and doesn’t actually do any of the writing for you. Professional writers rely on outside readers for both the revision and editing process, and it’s a good practice for you to do so, too.

Using Sources

College courses offer a few opportunities for writing that won’t require using outside resources.  Creative writing classes, applied lab classes, or field research classes will value what you create entirely from your own mind or from the work completed for the class. For most college writing, however, you will need to consult at least one outside source, and possibly more.

The following video provides a helpful overview of the ways in which sources are used most effectively and responsibly in academic writing.

https://youtu.be/u6Pxx5q2u5g

Note that this video models MLA-style citations. This is one of several different styles you might be asked to practice within your classes.  Your instructors should make it clear which of the major styles they expect you to use in their courses: MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association), Chicago, or another.

Regardless of the style, the same principles are true any time a source is used: give credit to the source when it is used in the writing itself, as well as in a bibliography (or Works Cited page, or References page) at the end.

Resources for Academic Writing

Writing Commons

Style for Students

Handouts from the Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill

Hart Research Associates, Raising the Bar: Employers’ Views on College Learning in the Wake of the Economic Downturn, http://www.aacu.org/leap/documents/2009_EmployerSurvey.pdf, 9.

Ibid., 5.

Hart Research Associates, It Takes More Than a Major: Employer Priorities for College Learning and Student Success. http://www.aacu.org/sites/default/files/files/LEAP/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdf.

CC licensed content, Original

Writing Strategies. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

CC licensed content, Shared previously

Image of journals. Authored by: Eli Juicy Jones. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/7NBXo4. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence. Authored by: Amy Guptill. Provided by: SUNY Open Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/writing-in-college-from-competence-to-excellence/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

Writing. Authored by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://youtu.be/6Jgwc3sXLCc. License: CC BY: Attribution

Image of Research Paper Writing. Provided by: University of British Columbia, Vancouver Campus. Located at: http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/student-toolkits-2/writing/. License: CC BY: Attribution

All rights reserved content

Using Sources. Authored by: Katrina Kimbril. Located at: https://youtu.be/u6Pxx5q2u5g. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

31

Testing Strategies

Do every day or two something for no other reason than you would rather not do it, so that when the hour of dire need draws nigh, it may find you not unnerved and untrained to stand the test. —William James, American philosopher and psychologist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define test anxiety

Identify sources of test anxiety and techniques for preventing and controlling it

Identify common types of tests given in a college class

Describe the purpose of tests and what an instructor might expect to see from your work

Identify strategies for answering typical kinds of test questions (multiple choice, listing, true/false, short answer, essay, and others)

Identify test-taking strategies to improve your performance

Tests and Exams[1]

There are few words more familiar in academia than the word test. From early childhood until perhaps our advanced years, we engage with tests in countless ways—formally and informally, with anticipation and nerves. In this section we take a look at tests and exams more closely and try to demystify them.

Tests or “examinations” are assessments designed to gauge your knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors,  and aptitudes. Below is a short list of some of the many tests you have likely taken:

Spelling tests

Reading tests

Math tests

Language tests

Laboratory tests

Typing tests

Physical fitness tests

Driving tests

Intelligence tests

Personality tests

“Self” tests

Standardized tests

Placement tests

Achievement tests

College entrance tests!

Just imagine how many tests have you taken in your lifetime:

In total, you may have taken an average of 113 standardized tests between pre-K and twelfth grade, according to the Council of the Great City Schools, which studied students in large urban districts.

In the 2014–15 school year, 401 unique tests were administered across subjects in the 66 large urban school systems that the council studied.

You may feel as though you’ve already taken enough tests for a lifetime! But, for better or for worse, testing seems to be a fact of life, and it’s certainly a recurring feature of the college experience. So you’ll be in the best position for success if you can learn to take tests in stride and develop good test-taking skills.

As you’ll discover, a big part of doing well on tests is knowing what to expect and gearing up psychologically—that is, learning how to deal with test anxiety.

What Is Test Anxiety?

My fears are like thundering elephants. Then when I get them out and really look at them, I see that they are actually mice with megaphones. —Bruce Rahtje, author and Biblical scholar

For many test takers, preparing for a test and taking a test can easily cause worry and anxiety. In fact, most students report that they are more stressed by tests and schoolwork than by anything else in their lives, according to the American Test Anxiety Association.[2]

Roughly 16–20 percent of students have high test anxiety.

Another 18 percent have moderately high test anxiety.

Test anxiety is the most common academic impairment in grade school, high school, and college.

Test anxiety is “the set of phenomenological, physiological, and behavioral responses that accompany concern about possible negative consequences or failure on an exam or similar evaluative situation.” (Zeidner, 1998) Put another way, test anxiety is a combination of overarousal, tension, worry, dread, fear of failure, and “catastrophizing” before or during test situations.

Below are some effects of moderate anxiety:[3]

Being distracted during a test

Having difficulty comprehending relatively simple instructions

Having trouble organizing or recalling relevant information

Crying

Illness

Eating disturbance

High blood pressure

Acting out

Toileting accidents

Sleep disturbance

Cheating

Negative attitudes towards self, school, subjects

Below are some effects of extreme test anxiety:[4]

Overanxious disorder

Social phobia

Suicide

Poor test performance is also a significant outcome of test anxiety. Test-anxious students tend to have lower study skills and lower test-taking skills, but research also suggests that high levels of emotional distress correlate with reduced academic performance overall. Highly test-anxious students score about 12 percentile points below their low-anxiety peers. Students with test anxiety also have higher overall dropout rates. And test anxiety can negatively affect a student’s social, emotional, and behavioral development, as well feelings about themselves and school.

Why does test anxiety occur? Inferior performance arises not because of intellectual problems or poor academic preparation. It occurs because testing situations create a sense of threat for those who experience test anxiety. The sense of threat then disrupts the learner’s attention and memory.[5]

Other factors can influence test anxiety, too. Students with disabilities and students in gifted education classes tend to experience high rates of test anxiety.

If you experience test anxiety, have hope! Experiencing test anxiety doesn’t mean that there’s something wrong with you or that you aren’t capable of performing well in college. In fact, some stress—a manageable amount of stress—can actually be motivating. The trick is to keep stress and anxiety at a level where it can help you do your best rather than get in your way.

Strategies for Preventing and Controlling Test Anxiety

The following video, from the University of British Columbia, provides strategies for coping with any stress and anxiety you may have about an upcoming test or exam. It also provides strategies, such as the following, for acing an exam:

Ask about the exam (materials covered, format, points, level of detail, etc.)

Take inventory of your notes

Set a study schedule

Keep your diet consistent

Don’t stop exercising

Get regular sleep

Make a five-day study plan for each exam

https://youtu.be/Z5Ru8sx5d1c

Health and wellness cannot be overstated as factors in test anxiety. Studying and preparing for exams can be easier when you take care of your mental and physical health. The following are a few tips for better health, better focus, and better grades:

Try a minimeditation to reduce stress and improve focus. Breathe in deeply, count to five, and exhale slowly. Watch your lower abdomen expand and deflate. Repeat five times. Learn more about how to proactively manage stress.

Know when to stop. Although some students may stay up until 4 a.m. studying, it’s not a healthy habit. Your mind is more efficient when you get enough quality sleep, so make sure to schedule enough time for rest.

Don’t try to be perfect. You’ll alleviate a lot of anxiety by learning that just “doing your best” is something to be proud of—it doesn’t have to be perfect.

Reach out for help. If you feel you need assistance with your mental or physical health, talk to a counselor or visit a doctor.

Activity: Test Yourself for Test Anxiety

Everyone feels some anxiety about tests. However, too much anxiety can interfere with your test preparation and test taking. Take this 5-minute assessment to determine how much test anxiety you may have and what you can do about it.

Objectives

Gain insight to your level of test anxiety

Determine your best strategies for lessening test anxiety

Directions

Visit the Test Anxiety Assessment at HowToStudy.com.

Click on the “Continue to Assessment” button. You have the option to take the test in Spanish.

Click on the best answer to each of the 35 questions.

When you’re finished, you’ll receive a brief assessment of your level of text anxiety. You can also click on a link to learn 20 ways to reduce your test anxiety.

Common Types of Tests in College

There are many ways to understand how tests and exams fit into academia and college culture. One way is to ask what purpose the tests (also called assessments) serve. For example, what is your professor trying to achieve if she gives you a survey-type test on the first day of class? How might the purpose of that test differ from that of, say, a practice quiz given before a midterm? And what is the purpose of a midterm?

Obviously, each survey, quiz, practice test, midterm, and final exam can serve different purposes. Depending upon the purpose, the assessment will fall into one of the following three categories:

Preassessment

Formative assessment

Summative assessment

Preassessments: Tests in this category are used to measure the beliefs, assumptions, knowledge, and skills that you have when you begin a class or before you begin working on a new topic. With preassessments, your professor gathers baseline data to use at a later time to evaluate change—that is, by comparing former knowledge or skills against what you learn in class.

One approach to preassessment is for a professor to ask students at the start of the term to describe a term or concept that’s foundational to the course. Then, later in the course, the professor revisits that data to determine how the instruction changed your understanding of the same concept. Comparing what you know or believe before and after a course or lesson is a productive way to gauge how successful your learning was and how successful the teaching was.

Formative assessments: Tests in this category are typically quizzes, pop quizzes, review questions, and practice tests. With formative assessments, your professor’s goal is to monitor what you are learning and get feedback from you about what is needed next in teaching. Did students do well on the quiz? If so, it’s probably time to move to the next topic. If they didn’t do well, it suggests that more teaching time should be devoted to the concept. Formative assessments help the instructor to better meet your needs as a learner.

Summative assessments: Tests in this category are the assessments that students are most familiar with: midterm and final exams. In a summative assessment, a professor is evaluating how much you actually learned at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it with a benchmark of what you should have learned. Summative assessments can be stressful, but they can be an effective measurement tool. Most summative assessments are graded.

In college courses, tests are usually verbal—you might be asked to give an oral presentation, for example—or written—you might be asked to mark or write out your answers on paper or on a computer. For special courses you might also encounter physical tests, in which you’re asked to perform a set of skills (like demonstrating the procedure for giving someone CPR, for instance).

Test Formats

Tests vary in style, rigor, and requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is typically required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items. In an open-book test, though, a test taker may use one or more supplementary resources such as a reference book or notes. Open-book testing may be used for subjects in which many technical terms or formulas are required to effectively answer questions, like in chemistry or physics.

In addition, test may be administered formally or informally. In an informal test, you might simply respond in a class to discussion questions posed by the instructor. In a formal test, you are usually expected to work alone, and the stakes are higher.

Below is a sampling of common test formats you may encounter. If you know what kind of test you’ll be taking, you can tailor your study approach to the format.

Common Test Types

There are three common test types: written tests, oral tests, and physical skills tests. Let’s look at the kinds of things you’ll be expected to complete in each test type.

Written Test

Written tests can be open-book, closed book, or anywhere in between. Students are required to give written answers (as the name of this test type implies). Below you’ll find a table of the most common question types in written tests:

Question Type | Description

Multiple choice (objective)
You are presented with a question and a set of answers for each question, and you must choose which answer or group of answers is correct. Multiple-choice questions usually require less time for test takers to answer than other question types, and they are easy to score and grade. They also allow for a wide range of difficulty.

True False (objective) | You are presented with a statement, and you must determine whether it is true or false. True/false questions are generally not predominant on tests because instructors know that, statistically, random guesswork can yield a good score. But when used sparingly, true/false questions can be effective.
Matching (objective) | You are presented with a set of specific terms or ideas and a set of definitions or identifying characteristics. You must match each term with its correct definition or characteristics.

Fill-in-the-blank
(objective)
You are presented with identifying characteristics, and you must recall and supply the correct associated term or idea. There are two types of fill-in-the-blank tests: 1) The easier version provides a word bank of possible words that will fill in the blanks. 2) The more difficult version has no word bank to choose from. Fill-in-the-blank tests with no word bank can be anxiety producing.

Essay (subjective) | You are presented with a question or concept that you must explain in depth. Essay questions emphasize themes and broad ideas. Essay questions allow students to demonstrate critical thinking, creative thinking, and writing skills.

Oral Test

Oral tests (also called an oral exam or viva voce)  are a discussion type of test. They are also subjective: there isn’t just one correct answer to the test questions.

The oral test is practiced in many schools and disciplines in which an examiner verbally poses questions to the student. The student must answer the question in such a way as to demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the subject. Many science programs require students pursuing a bachelor’s degree to finish the program by taking an oral exam, or a combination of oral and written exams, to show how well the student has understood the material. Usually, study guides or a syllabus are made available so that the students may prepare for the exam by reviewing practice questions and topics likely to be on the exam.

Physical Skills Test

In a physical skills test, you are presented with opportunities to perform specific tasks that require manual labor or physical skill. These tasks measure physical abilities, such as your strength, muscular flexibility, and stamina. Below is an example of physical abilities tests in the workplace:

https://youtu.be/soJt-ni2KN4

Purpose of Testing

You are a unique person. No one else is exactly like you. In college, you have particular ways of learning; you are interested in certain subjects; you have approaches to interacting with others that are special to you. You are an individual.

Your professors need to know as much as possible about what you know, think, or can do and how you differ from other students. Testing is one way to do that—to gauge how you learn, what you learn, and what you can do with what you’ve learned. By knowing more about these aspects of you as a student, your teachers are better able to serve you.

What are your instructors looking for that will yield clues about your individual learning? Mainly, your instructors are seeking, through testing, to confirm that you grasp the concepts, behaviors, or skills they are teaching. They want to know that you are achieving the objectives they set out for you. Their objectives may pertain to cognitive skills such remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. (See the Patterns of Thought section for more information about Bloom’s Taxonomy and the cognitive domain of learning.) In addition, your instructors are always pleased to see good grammar, thoughtfulness, creativity, accuracy, and solid references.

Your professors are not the only people who need to know about your learning. College administrators, such as deans and provosts, also need to be informed. Student performance gives them useful information that they use to make decisions about textbooks, teacher training, professional development, and other educational or resource needs.  There are a lot of stakeholders invested in seeing students be successful.

That said, your instructors are really the front line when it comes to collecting and interpreting student learning data. Tests, quizzes, homework, and other activities and assessments are often the best way to do this. Ultimately, the data your teachers collect help them refine the teaching and learning process so that everyone succeeds—students and teachers alike. Your success, though, should be the number one goal of testing.

Strategies for Question Types

Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts.—Albert Einstein

In many respects, test-taking is a skill. If you learn some key strategies, you can be quite successful in taking tests.

The Brigham Young University (BYU) Career & Academic Success Center has a comprehensive set of strategies to help you perform effectively with different types of test questions.

At the BYU Test-taking Strategies Web site, review detailed strategies for each type of test. Visit the practice tests, too.

Guidelines for Answering True/false Questions: Click here for practice test on true false questions

Guidelines for Answering Multiple-choice Questions: Click here for a practice test on multiple choice questions

Guidelines for Answering Matching Questions: Click here for a practice test on matching questions.

Guidelines for Answering Sentence Completion or Fill-in-the-blank Question: Click here for a practice test on fill-in-the-blank questions

Guidelines for Essay Questions: Click here for a practice test on essay questions

Strategies for Better Test-Taking Performance[6]

There are many skills and strategies you can employ to help you be a better test taker. One of them, widely used, is LAB B2OWL—an acronym to help you remember critical aspects of successful test-taking strategies. Watch the following video, which describes the strategies in detail. Then review the main concepts in the table,[7] below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QfxIuGf1f50

LAB B2OWL | DESCRIPTION
L | LOOK: Look over the entire exam before you start. Take care to read the directions, underline test words, and circle questions you don’t fully understand.
A | ASK: If you have any questions at all, ask. For example, if the exam doesn’t indicate total point allocation, be sure to ask your instructor.

B
BUDGET: Budget your time based on the point allocation for each question. For instance, let’s say your exam has one essay question worth 50 percent, and 5 identifications worth 10 percent each. If you have two hours to take the test, this gives you one hour to complete the essay, and 10 minutes for each of the five short-answer questions. You will have 10 minutes in reserve to review your work before turning it in.

B2 | BEGIN X 2: Begin with an easy question in order to build your confidence and get warmed up for the rest of the exam. Begin each answer with a thesis topic sentence. Restate the question in a single sentence to help you focus your answer.
O | OUTLINE: Be careful to write a quick outline for your essay on a separate page before you begin. This will help you organize your facts and focus your ideas. It might also serve to show your professor where you were going if you don’t have time to finish.
W | WATCH: Watch for key testing words like analyze, define, evaluate, and illustrate. These help you understand what your professor will be looking for in an answer.
L | LOOK: Finally, look over your exam before turning it in to make sure you haven’t missed anything important.

Below is another video about test-taking strategies. This one acknowledges that each student is unique, and therefore no two students approach tests in exactly the same way. In the following video you will see multiple students sharing their personal success strategies for studying and test taking.

https://youtu.be/16ycJsAgxoo

The infographic, below, depicts key strategies you can use to improve your performance on tests. If you carefully examine the illustrations in the infographic and connect them with the text, you will likely remember these techniques in the future when you most need them.

Activity: Ace Your Exams

Objectives

Identify sources of test anxiety and techniques for preventing and controlling it

Identify test-taking strategies to improve your performance

Directions

Review the set of questions, below. Think about how you prepare (or don’t prepare) for tests and exams. What do you struggle with? What steps can you take to better prepare for your exams this semester?

Make a list of what you feel are your main worries or concerns about tests or what you find most difficult to cope with. You might consider contacting your tutor to ask for advice,or find out if there are any exam-preparation workshops at your college.

Make another list of any good ideas and strategies you intend to try as you prepare for your next test.

Revision and Examinations

How would you summarize your overall feelings about tests?

How long is your study period? How long before the actual exam would you start studying?

What sort of pattern does your study take? Do you work in phases, small bits or longer periods?

How close to the test do you study? Up to the night before, or do you have a break?

How carefully do you plan or structure your study period? Do you plan a detailed outline of what you will do, or do you just start and work through?

If you need to memorize material, do you have any particular way of doing it?

Do you record material in any way, perhaps summarize it on cards or paper, or record it?

Do you try to include any new material while studying, or do you stick with what you have already studied?

Do you try to reorganize your material, perhaps rewrite notes?

Do you make use of back papers? Do you practice answering actual questions?

What do you do on the night before and the morning of the test?

What do you think and feel as you journey to the test location?

Do you stand outside talking with others, or so you stand alone?

Between going into the room and starting the test, do you have rituals such as where you place the things you’ve taken with you? Do you meditate, pray, or practice relaxation?

Once the test starts, do you have a particular pattern of work?

Do you have a problem with timing?

Do you check back through your work before you submit it?

What do you do immediately after the test?

Do you contact other students or your tutor after the exam?

Looking back at the tests you have taken, do you feel you have learned anything that has helped you or might help you to do better?

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"Text Anxiety." American Test Anxieties Association. Web. 25 Apr. 2016.

"Test Anxiety." Test Anxiety. Web. 25 Apr. 2016.

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"Preparing for Exams." Learning Commons. Web. 25 Apr. 2016.

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Testing Strategies. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Exam Strategies: Study Skills. Provided by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://youtu.be/Z5Ru8sx5d1c. License: CC BY: Attribution

Studying and Exam Prep Secrets. Authored by: learningcommons.ubc.ca. Located at: http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/student-toolkits-2/preparing-for-exams/. License: CC BY: Attribution

Prepping for Exams. Provided by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://youtu.be/16ycJsAgxoo. License: CC BY: Attribution

Exam Strategies: Test Skills. Provided by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QfxIuGf1f50. License: CC BY: Attribution

Image of exam. Authored by: Karl Baron. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/4nFTB6. License: CC BY: Attribution

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32

Presentation Strategies

The very best impromptu speeches are the ones written well in advance. —Ruth Gordon, actress and playwright

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify common types of presentation tasks in a college class, including individual and group projects

Describe the purpose of presentation assignments and what an instructor might expect to see from your delivery

Explain how to avoid common pitfalls of visual aids in presentations

Identify techniques to reduce anxiety prior to and during presentation delivery

Imagine you are walking across your campus. As you pass the student center, you see a couple of people who have set up at a table outside, and they’re passing out information about the student honor society. Open windows in the music building share the sounds of someone practicing the piano in the art studio. Upon entering your class building, you are greeted by student-made posters illustrating various phases of the process of cell division. An open class door allows you to watch a young man in a lab coat and protective gear pour liquid nitrogen over items in a tray while the rest of his classmates look on with great interest. Your own instructor is setting up the computer screen at the front of your class when you walk in, loading up the Powerpoint that he plans to use for the day.

All of these are examples of presentations, and it’s very likely that you’ll be asked to participate in similar activities during your college career. Presenting, whether face-to-face or online, is a skill you will hone as a college student in preparation for your future career.

Presentation Types

Presentations can take many forms and potentially serve many purposes. When reading the definitions below, keep in mind that many presentations often combine several elements into a hybrid form. You may have to pick and choose what will work best for you depending on the instructor and the course. Let’s start with the different genres or types of presentations.

Informative

Some presentation assignments will ask you simply to deliver information about a topic. Often these presentations involve research, which you will shape and present to your instructor and classmates. Typically, informative presentations ask that you NOT share your opinion about the subject at hand (which can be more challenging than it seems). With an informative presentation, your goal is to educate your audience by presenting a summary of your research and “sticking to the facts.”

Persuasive

Unlike informative presentations, persuasive presentations ask that you not only form an opinion about your subject but also convince your audience to come around to your point of view. These presentations often involve research, too, and the findings of your research will be used to bolster the persuasive case you’re making.

Lesson Delivery

You may be asked to do a “Teaching Presentation,” which will require you to specialize in one topic of the course and give your fellow classmates instruction about it. In short, you become the teacher of a subject. Often your presentation will be the only time that this subject is covered in the class, so you will be responsible for making sure that you provide clear, detailed, and relevant information about it. You may also be asked to provide questions on the subject to be included in a quiz or test.

Demonstration

These action-based presentations typically model some behavior or subject matter that has been introduced previously in the class. Unlike the Lesson Delivery presentation, a demonstration adds a level of performance in which you show and tell the the audience what you know. You might perform the demonstration yourself, as a way of illustrating the concept or procedure, or you might provide classmates with instructions and guidance as they do it themselves.

Poster

Poster presentations should convey all the information on a subject necessary for a viewer to consider on her own. They often consist of short, punchy wording accompanied by strong visuals—graphs, charts, images, and/or illustrations. Posters frequently require research to prepare, and they allow for some creativity in design. Depending on the assignment, your poster may be part of a gallery of poster presentations with your classmates. Your poster has to communicate everything that is important without you being there to explain it to your audience.

Online

Similar to poster presentations, online presentations are generally asynchronous—meaning they don’t require you to be present at the same time as your viewer. They often serve similar purposes as poster presentations, but due to the online format, they allow for more interactive possibilities, such as sharing a pertinent video or animated graph. Your online presentation must stand alone to teach your audience everything they need to know.

Solo and Group Presentations

You may be asked to present as an individual or as part of a group.

Individual presentations put all of the responsibility for preparation, research, and delivery on you. You rightfully take all the credit for the final product you produce.

Group presentations, in contrast, often involve more complicated tasks and therefore require more participants to make them. Your instructor may make suggestions about how the work should be divided, or the group may delegate tasks internally. Grades may be assigned equally to everyone in the group, though many instructors assign individual grades based on some participation-level factor to inspire each member to pull his or her own weight.

Presentation assignments are often open to creative interpretation, which gives you a lot of room to explore new techniques and add a personal touch to the task.

Think About Audience

Now that you’ve learned a bit about the various types of presentations, it’s helpful to turn to another important part of presenting: the audience. Like reading and writing, presenting is a form of communication. Whether you’re presenting information, giving a demonstration, creating a poster, or trying to change people’s minds, your goal is to get your message across to your audience. For that reason, it’s important to remember that they may not interpret the information you are presenting exactly as you have. It’s your job as a presenter to explain your ideas using specific details, succinct and clear wording (avoid jargon), vivid descriptions, and meaningful images. As you organize your presentation, keeping this imaginary audience in mind can help you gauge how much background information and context to provide.

Choosing Media and Format for Visual Aids

Perhaps you’ve heard the phrase “Death by PowerPoint” to explain that all-too-familiar feeling of being slowly bored to death by a thoughtless presenter who’s droning on and on about boring slide after boring slide. If you’d like to know what the experience is about, and you have time for a laugh, watch the following video, starring stand-up comedian Don McMillan. McMillan pokes fun at bad presentations, but he has some very sound advice about what not to do.

https://youtu.be/MjcO2ExtHso

You may consider using PowerPoint for your presentation, and that’s perfectly fine. PowerPoint can be a very effective tool with the right organization, layout, and design. Below is a list of five common pitfalls that you can and should avoid, and doing so will go a long way toward making your PowerPoint presentation successful:

Choosing a font that is too small. The person in the very back of the room should be able to see the same thing as the person in the front of the room.

Putting too many words on a slide. Remember it’s called PowerPoint, not PowerParagraph! Keep your bullet points clear and succinct.

Having spelling errors. Have somebody proofread your slides. Any typos will detract from your presentation.

Choosing distracting colors that make it hard to read the information. PowerPoint gives you a lot of color choices in their design templates. The ideas in your brilliant presentation will be lost if your audience is struggling to read the content.

Selecting images or visuals that do not clearly align with the content. For instance, a cute photo of your cat may look lovely up on the screen, but if it doesn’t connect to your topic, it’s just fluff that detracts from your message. Every slide counts, so make sure the visuals support your message.

Practicing for the Presentation

Once you’ve put together your presentation and have an idea of the audience that will hear and see it, it’s time to deal with the “nerves” that can accompany the performance part of the presentation. Let’s turn to a final list of pointers for the “performance” part of the presentation, when you actually present your plan to an audience. You’ve worked hard as the owner of this presentation, so have confidence in your work. It’s tough to remember this when you’re nervous, but you’re the person who knows the most about your presentations. The following activity can help you get there.

Activity: Make A Presentation Plan

Objective

Practice techniques to reduce anxiety prior to and during presentation delivery

Directions

As you plan for your presentation, it’s helpful to reflect on the challenges you may face when you present to your audience. Jot down a quick list of strengths and weaknesses. Be honest!

Now that you have an honest reflection of those strengths and weakness, it’s time to practice. Ask a friend or family member to watch you present. Request that they be honest with you and give constructive criticism about the strengths and weaknesses of your presentation. Have them jot down quick notes.

After the practice presentation, compare notes with the friend or family member. Compare and contrast how you felt about the quality of your presentation with the feedback you received. Use this information to help improve your presentation delivery.

What if you don’t have anyone available to practice your presentation? Record yourself using your phone or your laptop. It can be very difficult to listen to yourself, but it’s always enlightening to watch and/or listen to yourself present.

Practicing your presentation will help you build confidence and reduce anxiety prior to and during your presentation. Remember the sage advice of Oscar Wilde: “Be yourself. Everyone else is taken.” Good luck!

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33

Quantitative Strategies

In the past, when some people get a problem wrong, they might have thought that they just don’t have the ability to study math–that they’re not math people. But when you talk to professional mathematicians, the people who are best at math, it turns out that they work a long time on the same problem–and they only spend their time on problems that they struggle with the most. And even though you might think they make up answers on their own, almost always mathematicians have to ask people for help.  —The Carnegie Foundation for The Advancement of Teaching

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe how personal attitudes toward quantitative courses can impact success

Compare effective note-taking strategies for quantitative courses against those for other courses

Identify strategies for reading quantitative texts

Compare pre- and post-test-taking strategies for quantitative courses against those for other courses

Many students work hard in math classes—studying long hours, nights and weekends—yet many of them do so using ineffective strategies. Others simply withdraw effort soon after the course begins, or they make mistakes. To help you successfully complete your academic goals, we want you to both persist in your studying and attendance (tenacity) and to do so efficiently and effectively (good strategies). This is called productive persistence. This section will help you develop a plan for how you can implement the idea of productive persistence as an effective way of succeeding in courses that rely heavily on math, using quantitative success strategies.

Mindset

One aspect of productive persistence is something called “mindset.” Work through the following activity to learn more.

Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

Getting the Most from Your Math Notes

In grade school, you may have had a teacher who praised students for having neat, tidy papers. Learning can be messy, and if we restrict ourselves to neat, tidy papers, that is all we will have. Sometimes we need to try a homework problem over and over before we understand how to find a solution. In our hectic lives, it is important for us to allow ourselves time to reflect on the messy parts so we can tidy them up in our minds.

Preparation

Prepare for your classes as you would practice for an upcoming athletic event. Know the topics you are going to cover, and make a goal of being current with your assignments. Learning is not passive, so if you want to learn from your class time, you must prepare yourself to learn.

Consider these two scenarios:

Scenario 1

Greta is busy. She has a job and works at night after spending hours at school every day. The last thing she wants to do is prepare for class when she gets home from work at night. Despite her exhaustion, she takes 15–20 minutes before bed to check the syllabus from her math class to see what topic will be covered in lecture the next day.  She then finds the text material related to the lecture topic and quickly skims it, reading over the headings.

Scenario 2

Greta is busy. She has a job and works at night after spending hours at school every day. The last thing she wants to do is prepare for class when she gets home from work at night. She decides to watch an episode of her favorite TV show before she goes to sleep at night.

How much value do you think Greta is gaining from her math lectures in each of these scenarios? Do you think 15–20 minutes really makes a difference?  If you haven’t before, try spending 15–20 minutes skimming the material related to your lecture before you go—even if you just read the headings in your text. Maybe you take public transportation to campus. If so, you could skim your text or lecture notes on the bus. If you drive, maybe you can get to campus a few minutes early to do the same thing.

Preparing for class doesn’t necessarily mean having read all the material related to that day’s lecture. Some people gain more from reading after lecture. In general, most people do retain more from lectures if they focus their mind on the topic of the class before entering the class. Ask yourself these questions before your lecture: what did we talk about last time? What are we going to talk about this time? Am I current with my assignments?

Math concepts build on each other. Because of this, keeping up with homework and assignments will help you be prepared for the next session. If you are behind, you will lose a valuable opportunity to make important connections between last week’s content and this week’s.

Taking Notes

It is impossible to write down everything your teacher says during a lecture.  As you become a more skilled learner, you will learn how to glean what is important from a lecture. Here are some things that can help you organize your notes and your understanding of the content in them.

Consider these things before you start writing:

Where are you going to keep your notes? 3 ring binder, folder, spiral notebook? Taking notes with a computer in your math class may prove difficult when you need to draw a graph or geometric object.

How are you going to organize your notes on the page?

What purpose do your notes serve?

How do you plan to use your notes?

Organizing Your Math Notes

Before and During Class

As with any kind of class, you may need some time to figure out how to best organize the information you want to record. There are many popular styles of note-taking and if you have one you prefer, there is no reason to change.  If you want to explore more ideas that have worked well for other students in math courses, consider these:

Split your page into two columns, one for descriptions/ definitions and one for examples

Cornell notes—good old “C Notes”—can be helpful, but require some deeper thinking than you may be able to do on the fly during a lecture. Consider saving C notes for use while reading your textbook, instead.

If you don’t understand something, write it down anyway and mark clearly that you have a question about it. If you don’t have time in class to ask about it, get help with it later. Writing down what you don’t understand may be the most important part of taking notes!

Homework Journal

There’s a good chance you are going to be assigned online homework in at least one of your math or science classes while you are in college. Often, students fall into the habit of working through online homework without keeping track of their work.  If there’s one thing you take from this page, it should be this: Keep an online homework journal!

Here are some important things to include in your homework journal:

The title of the homework set—even if it is just the number, such as 2.3. This will help you use your work as a reference for study.

Write down each problem you do—if there are easy ones, just write the answers to them if you don’t think you will forget the steps.

If you make a mistake—just circle it and note that it was wrong.  If it takes a ton of tries, that’s okay—it’s your homework journal, and you’re not turning it in for a grade.

Allowing yourself to make mistakes in your homework journal gives you freedom to learn and not be worrying about a perfect paper.

Summarizing/ Reviewing

Summarizing and reviewing what you have done will help to solidify the ideas that are now swirling around in your head. You go to lecture, take a bunch of notes, do a ton of homework problems, and then what?  Your brain needs time to make connections between practice, what you have in your notes, and what you may have read in the text.

After Class / Homework

What’s the point of taking notes or doing homework if you never look at them again?

The sooner you can get your questions answered the better you will understand the answers. Remember those questions you circled in your lecture notes? Make sure you resolve them as quickly as you can.

Compare your class notes to the assigned reading – maybe you can reorganize your thoughts, or answer one of your own questions.

As you do your homework, keep your notes open. Ask yourself, “is this question like an example from class?”

After you do your homework, try to place the practice problems into the corresponding readings in your text – what are the key terms or definitions related to those problems?

Recall from the Active Learning section that effective reading requires more engagement than just reading the words on the page. Reading a quantitative math text effectively uses the same skills as reading any academic text effectively. It’s still a good idea to do things like circle key words, write notes, and reflect. You can still employ the same steps that were presented previously:

Preview: You can gain insight from an academic text before you even begin the reading assignment. In the section about preparing for lecture, you were encouraged to preview the material associated with the day’s lesson. In this way, previewing serves you in two ways.

Read: While you read a math text, you should have a pen or pencil in hand. Circle or highlight key concepts, definitions, or examples. Write questions or comments in the margins or in a notebook.

Summarize: After you read a math text, it’s worth taking the time to write a short summary—even if your instructor doesn’t require it. The exercise of jotting down a few definitions or examples can help to solidify new ideas and help you when you do homework or study for a test.

Review: It always helps to revisit what you’ve read for a quick refresher. It may not be practical to thoroughly reread assignments from start to finish, but before class discussions or tests, it’s a good idea to skim through them to identify the main points, reread any notes at the ends of chapters, and review any summaries you’ve written.

Reading Quantitative Texts

Get to Know the Conventions

Math texts may be organized in a way that is new to you. They are full of symbols and notation, and not as much text as other subjects. A few important features make up a math text. These include

definitions

examples

descriptions of notation

text

graphs

tables

You may be tempted to skip over examples or boxes with definitions in them when you are reading a math text and just get to the “regular” text part. BEWARE! Most of the important information in a math text is in the definitions, examples, and notation. Notation is very important to most college math instructors, so take the time to pay attention to how mathematical ideas and processes are written.

Look up and Keep Track of Unfamiliar Notation and Definitions

If you don’t understand a definition or how it is applied, make note of your confusion.  You can circle an example or the definition, or write it in your notes. Ask for help to clarify your confusion. Try rewriting mathematical expressions or equations as words if you are confused by them. Remember that being confused is probably the most important part of learning: it means that you know where to focus your learning strategies!

Young man holding a page with a red pi symbol in one hand, and tossing pages with numbers on them from the other handLook for Main Ideas and Themes

Rather than presenting ideas with a thesis statement, then supporting them with examples and discussion, a math text will present a mathematical definition or classification, and support it with examples. As a college student, you are not expected to understand every single word or idea presented in a reading, especially if you haven’t discussed it in class yet. However, you will get more out of class or homework practice if you can identify the main concepts in a reading.

Pay Attention to Visual Information

Math texts present a numerous graphs, tables, charts, and images. These items contain valuable information to help you more deeply grasp a topic. Graphs can show a visual representation of a mathematical rule or equation. Tables can help you see trends or describe relationships.

Data-rich graphics can take longer to “read” than the text around them because they present a lot of information in a condensed form.  Give yourself plenty of time to study these items, as they often provide new and lasting insights that are easy to recall later (like in the middle of an exam on that topic!).

Preparing for Your Math Exam

Recall the four sensory modalities in Fleming’s Learning Styles model:

Visual learning

Auditory learning

Read/write learning

Kinesthetic learning

You can use the understanding you have of your own learning style to your advantage as you prepare for a math exam.

Visual/Spatial

Visual learners make sense of the world through pictures and images. They learn well when lesson plans incorporate photos, videos, or visual maps. A visual learner may describe their understanding as images or pictures rather than with words, and are drawn to design and spatially focused.

If you learn with pictures and images, you may benefit from creating drawings related to each concept. Diagrams and visual cues can help visual learners make important connections between concepts. Mind maps may also be a helpful tool for further solidifying your understanding of how mathematical concepts are connected. Additionally, if you are visual, you could color code your notes and study materials.

Auditory Learners

Aural learners are best equipped to understand and store information absorbed via sound and music. Their ears are particularly adept at deconstructing and parsing heavy mixes of tones. They will often do better with books on tape versus printed versions.

Many aural learners enjoy listening to music. Playing pleasant music in the background while learning mathematics can evoke positive emotions and stir up a bit of energy while you are working. Just make sure that the music is not overly distracting or played too loud. In addition, musical minded people can try to organize formulas and operations into musical patterns or rhymes. Coming up with a rhyme or melody to remember the quadratic equation may be more effective than simply attempting to remember the visual image of the formula. It may also help to find someone who will listen to you explain what you are learning or studying.

Read/ Write

Read/ Write learners may prefer learning with words—both with speech and writing. If you are a read/ write learner you may soak up knowledge through various mediums centered around language. If you prefer learning this way, try sitting down after class to rewrite your notes. Translating a mathematical expression, graph, or equation into words may also help. If you learn from reading and writing, keeping a homework journal may be very beneficial to you.

Physical/Kinesthetic

Physical learners learn best by touch and movement. A lot of superb athletes tend to fall into this category as physical processes and activities seem to sync well with their learning and memorizing capabilities.

For physical learners, studying may seem like torture, but if you are committed to it, there are ways. If you tend to learn best when active, it is important for you to stay in motion while studying. This could involve squeezing a stress ball while working, or simply taking a break every 20 or 30 minutes to walk around the room. Hands on models are terrific as well when applicable. If there is a tangible learning device that you can actually touch and interact with, all the better.

As you work through problems to study for your exam, use this decision tree to help you optimize your time.

Group Study

Some learners prefer to learn in groups surrounded by other people. If you thrive in social environments, you may benefit from working in teams to complete homework assignments and prep for exams. This kind of activity can can often charge your energy levels and can create a supportive network of caring classmates. It is imperative that at least one person in the group be willing and able to keep the group on track and focused; otherwise your study session will turn into social hour.

If you plan to study in a group, try preparing an agenda before you get together. Your agenda could include a summary of the topics you will review, and a few problems for each topic that you want to try to work out together. Beware of the “attention seeker” when you are part of a study group. Try to share the work of solving problems or answering each other’s questions. All of you will get much more our of the experience.

Positive Mental Habits for Testing

Define and repeat a positive mantra like “I have all the tools I need to do well on this test,” or “I am capable of answering all the questions on this test.”

Avoid over-thinking—your gut reaction is usually right. Math teachers grade innumerable tests where students erased the right answer.

No amount of positive self-talk can make up for not being prepared. Give yourself lots of time and practice so you don’t feel stressed.

Stop studying at least 30 minutes before your test, and let your brain rest.

Before your exam try to laugh or get some light exercise; read a funny book or comic.

If others are commiserating before the exam about how hard it will be, don’t join in. Remove yourself from self-doubt and negative talk.

Before the exam—visualize yourself taking the test and knowing how to answer the questions and feeling good about your performance. Repeat this activity as much as possible. It works!

Make mini exams for yourself. Take homework problems that were not assigned and give yourself an allotted amount of time to do them. Getting good at something happens from practicing the mechanics of the motions frequently.

Math Test-Taking Strategies

Just as it is important to think about how you spend your study time (in addition to actually doing the studying), it is important to think about what strategies you will use when you take a test (in addition to actually doing the problems on the test). Good test-taking strategy can make a big difference in your grade.

First, look over the entire test to identify problems you definitely know how to do right away, and those you expect to have to think about.

Do the problems in the order that suits you. Start with the problems that you know for sure you can do. This builds confidence and means you don’t miss any sure points just because you run out of time. Then try the problems you think you can figure out, with more time. Finally, try the ones you are least sure about.

Time is of the essence—work as quickly and continuously as you can while still writing legibly and showing all your work. If you get stuck on a problem, move on to another one. You can come back later, and something you do on another problem might help inspire you when you return to one you skipped.

Work by the clock. On a 50 minute, 100 point test, you have about 5 minutes for a 10 point question. Starting with the easy questions will probably put you ahead of the clock. When you work on a harder problem, spend the allotted time (e.g., 5 minutes) on that question, and if you have not almost finished it, go on to another problem. Do not spend 20 minutes on a problem which will yield few or no points when there are other problems still to try.

Show all your work: make it as easy as possible for the Instructor to see how much you do know. Try to write a well-reasoned solution. If your answer is incorrect, the Instructor will assign partial credit based on the work you show.

Never waste time erasing! Just draw a line through the work you want ignored and move on. Not only does erasing waste precious time, but you may discover later that you erased something useful (and maybe worth partial credit if you cannot complete the problem).

For a multiple-step problem with limited space on the page—you can put your answer on another sheet to avoid needing to erase. Outline your answer and indicate where the solution can be found.

Don’t give up on a several-part problem just because you can’t do the first part. Attempt the other part(s). If the actual solution depends on the first part, at least explain how you would move through each step. Read the questions carefully, and do all parts of each problem.

If you finish early, check every problem—that means rework everything from scratch. Does each answer make sense given the context of the problem?

After You Get Your Results

Your instructor passed back your first math exam and you are devastated.  You thought you did so well preparing, you kept up with assignments, and came to every class. Why did you get a C−? You may feel like you have failed, but this is an opportunity take charge of your education! You have been given several opportunities by getting a C− on your exam.

Don’t throw away any tests, even if you are upset about your grade. It is very important to take an inventory of the errors you made on each question.   Use the following inventory to assess your mistakes.

The Six Types of Test-Taking Errors

Carelessness. You lost focus on the question and made a silly error (like changing a sign or inventing a new rule of algebra).

Directions. You skipped over or misunderstood directions and as a result you did the problem incorrectly.

Concept. You did not understand the properties or principles required to work the problem.

Application. You understood the concepts involved, but did not apply them correctly in the context of the specific problem presented.

Nerves. You made errors in judgment due to the pressure of the test-taking environment. These include not completing the problem to the last step, changing a correct answer to an incorrect answer, getting stuck on one problem and spending too much time on it, rushing through the easiest parts of the test and making careless mistakes, leaving answers blank (no partial credit), or leaving early and not checking all of your answers.

Preparation. You studied the wrong material, or did not spend enough time studying the relevant topics.

Identifying what kinds of error you made will help you focus your strategy for study and preparation for the next exam.  You can develop a plan for how to prevent similar types of errors, once you know where to concentrate your efforts.

Activity: Learning from Graded Tests

Objectives

Analyze your performance on a math exam

Identify strategies to improve your performance on future math exams

Directions

Refer to the six types of test-taking errors for this exercise, noted above.

Study the results from the most recent math-based test or exam you have taken. Look over each problem that you got wrong. On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following steps.

Copy the problem exactly as it was stated on the test. Include the problem number.

Identify the type of error (or errors) from the list above that caused you to lose points. Write the name of the error AND be very specific about what your particular error was. For example, if you did not understand a concept, identify it in detail.

Write a complete, corrected solution for the problem. Include explanations of the logic of your solution – why does this lead process lead to the correct answer?

When you have completed correcting all the questions, answer these additional questions to reflect on your thinking and learning.

Look back at all of the categories of errors you made. What patterns, if any, do you notice?

What strategies do you need to adopt in order to avoid your most common errors?

Overall, are you satisfied with your score? Why or why not? Explain.

Describe what you think you need to do or change in order to improve your score to a level you want. If you feel you did well, describe what you think you did that helped your performance. Be specific. The idea is here is to deeply reflect on what is working and what is not so you can adapt your study habits moving forward.

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34

Working with Instructors

One repays a teacher badly if one always remains nothing but a pupil. —Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify options for communicating with instructors

Discuss the benefits of utilizing instructor office hours

Evaluate effective email communication strategies with instructors

Identify strategies for resolving conflicts with an instructor

Communicating with Instructors

Of all the teachers you’ve had in your life, which one do you remember most fondly? If you’re lucky, you’ve got someone in mind—a teacher who encouraged and inspired you and perhaps played a role in shaping the person you are today.

That same teacher could well be thinking similar thoughts about you!—because for every favorite teacher, there is also a favorite student. The satisfactions often go both ways.

In this section, we look at ways in which you can cultivate rich and rewarding relationships with your instructors, and also resolve conflicts, should any arise. Solid student-faculty relationships can be foundational to a successful college experience.

The following video, from Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, looks at the value teachers and students place on connecting with one another.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZ0r4v7JBAk

Methods of Communicating with Instructors

College students are sometimes surprised to discover that instructors enjoy getting to know students. The human dimension of college really matters, and as a student you are an important part of your instructor’s world. Most instructors are happy to work with you during their office hours, or talk a few minutes after class, respond to digital messages, talk on the phone, or engage in online discussion forums or perhaps course wikis or personal journals. These are some of the many methods of communication you and your instructors can use.

The following video, from the University of British Columbia, shares faculty perspectives on some of the many reasons why students might want to talk to their faculty or to teaching assistants (TAs).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rzQ_f4vzciM

Benefits of Communicating with Instructors

One of the many benefits of communicating with instructors is that it can help you feel more comfortable in college and more connected to the college culture. Students who communicate with their instructors are less likely to become dispirited and drop out.

Communicating with instructors is also a valuable way to learn about an academic field or a career. Maybe you don’t know for sure what you want to major in, or what people with a degree in your chosen major actually do after college. Most instructors will share information and insights with you.

You may also need a reference or a letter of recommendation for a job or internship application. Getting to know some of your instructors puts you in an ideal position to ask for a letter of recommendation or a reference later on.

Because instructors are often well connected within their field, they may know of a job, internship, or research opportunity that you wouldn’t otherwise know about. An instructor who knows you is a valuable part of your network. Networking is important for future job searches and other opportunities. In fact, most jobs are found through networking, not through classified ads or online job postings. (See the section on Networking.)

Think about what being “educated” truly means: how one thinks, understands society and the world, and responds to problems and new situations. Much of this learning occurs outside of the formal class. Communicating with your instructors can be among your most meaningful experiences in college.

Guidelines for Communicating with Instructors

Getting along with instructors and communicating well begins with attitude. As experts in their field, instructors deserve respect. Remember that a college education is a collaborative process that works best when students and instructors communicate freely in an exchange of ideas, information, and perspectives. So while it pays to respect your instructors, there is no need to fear them. As you get to know them better, you’ll learn their personalities and find appropriate ways to talk to them. Below are some guidelines for getting along with and communicating with your instructors:

Prepare before meeting with the instructor. Go over your notes on readings and lectures and write down your specific questions. You’ll feel more comfortable, and the instructor will appreciate your being organized.

Be sure to introduce yourself. Especially near the beginning of the term, don’t assume that your instructor has learned everyone’s name yet, and don’t make him or her have to ask you. Unless the instructor has already asked you to address him or her as “Dr. ____,” “Ms. _____,” or Mr. _______,” or something similar, it’s appropriate to say “Professor _______.”

Respect the instructor’s time. In addition to teaching, college instructors participate in committees, conduct research and other professional work, and have personal lives. It’s not appropriate to arrive several minutes before the end of an office hour and expect the instructor to stay late to talk with you.

Understand that the instructor will recognize you from class. If you spent a lecture hour not paying attention, it will reflect badly on you to come to an office hour to find out what you missed.

Don’t try to fool an instructor. Insincere praise or making excuses for not doing an assignment will rarely play in your favor (they’ve heard it all before!). Nor is it a good idea to act like you’re “too cool” to take your classwork seriously—another attitude that’s sure to put off an instructor. To earn your instructor’s respect, come to class prepared, do the work, genuinely participate in class, and show respect—and the instructor will be happy to see you when you come to office hours or need some extra help.

Try to see things from the instructor’s point of view. Imagine that you spent hours preparing for class, on a topic that you find very interesting and exciting. You are gratified when people understand what you’re saying—they really get it! And then a student after class asks, “Is this going to be on the test?” How would you feel?

Be professional when talking to an instructor. You can be cordial and friendly, but it’s ideal to keep it professional and on an adult level. Come to office hours prepared with your questions—not just to chat or joke around. (Don’t wear sunglasses or earphones in the office or check your cell phone for messages.) Be prepared to accept constructive criticism in a professional way, without taking it personally or complaining.

The following infographic gives you a visual way to remember key concepts about communicating with your instructors.

Activity: Interacting with Your Instructors

Objectives

Identify options for communicating with instructors

Discuss the benefits of utilizing instructor office hours

Directions

The word instructor comes from the Latin wordstruere, meaning build, construct. Make a list of ten ways in which you could take advantage of communicating with your instructor to help build and construct a powerful learning experience.

Effective Email Communication with Instructors

Just as digital messaging has become a primary form of communication in business and society, it has a growing role in education and has become an important and valuable means of communicating with instructors. Most college students are familiar with digital messaging, such as email, texting, and messages via the online-course learning-management system. Using digital messaging respects other people’s time, allowing them to answer at a time of their choosing.

However, digital communication with instructors is a written form of communication that differs from communicating with friends. Students who text with friends often adopt shortcuts, such as not spelling out full words, ignoring capitalization and punctuation, and not focusing on grammar or using full sentences. Such texts are usually very informal and are not an appropriate style for communicating with instructors. Your instructors expect you to use a professional, respectful tone and fairly formal style.

Use a professional email name. If you have a nickname you use with friends, create a different account with a professional name for use with instructors, work supervisors, and others. “BoatyMcBoatface” is not an appropriate, professional email name.

Include something in the subject line that readily communicates the purpose/topic of your email: “May I make an appointment?” says something; “Help!” doesn’t.

Address digital messages as you do a letter, beginning “Dear Professor ____.” Include your full name in the closing.

Get to your point quickly and concisely.

Write as you would in a paper for class, avoiding sarcasm, criticism, or negative language.

Avoid abbreviations, nonstandard spelling, slang, and emoticons like smiley faces.

Be courteous, accommodating, and respectful. Avoid stating expectations like, “I’ll expect to hear from you soon” or “If I haven’t heard by 4 p.m., I’ll assume you’ll accept my late paper.”

When you reply to a message, leave the original message within yours.

End the message with a “Thank you” or something similar.

Proofread your message before sending it.

Wait to send if you are upset. With any important message, it’s a good idea to wait and review the message later before sending it. You may have expressed an emotion or thought that you will think better about later. Many problems have resulted when people send messages too quickly without thinking.

Conflict-Resolution Strategies

The most common “conflict” that students experience with instructors is feeling that they’ve received a lower grade than they deserve.  This may be especially true for new students not yet used to the higher standards of college. It can be disappointing to get a low grade, but try not to be too hard on yourself or on the instructor. Take a good look at what happened on the test or paper and make sure you know what to do better next time.

If you genuinely believe you should have a higher grade, you can talk with your instructor. How you communicate in that conversation, however, is very important. Instructors are used to hearing students complain about grades, and they will likely patiently explain their standards for grading. In general, instructors seldom change grades. Still, it can still be worthwhile to talk with the instructor. You will gain from the experience even if your grade doesn’t change.

Here are guidelines for talking about a grade or resolving any other problem or disagreement with an instructor:

Go over the requirements for the paper or test and the instructor’s comments. Be sure you actually have a reason to evaluate the grade—not just that you didn’t do well. Be prepared with specific points you want to discuss.

Make an appointment with your instructor. For face-to-face classes, don’t try to talk about your concern before or after class.

Be polite. Begin by politely explaining that you thought you did better on the assignment or test (not simply that you think you deserve a better grade) and that you’d like to go over it to better understand the result.

Allow the instructor to explain his or her comments on the assignment or grading of the test. Don’t complain or whine; instead, show your appreciation for the explanation. Raise any specific questions, or make comments at this time. For example, you might say, “I really thought I was being clear here when I wrote . . .”

Use good listening skills. Whatever you do, don’t argue!

Ask what you can do to improve the grade, if possible. Can you rewrite the paper or do any extra-credit work to help make up for a test score? While you are showing that you would like to earn a higher grade in the course, also make it clear that you’re willing to put in the effort and that you want to learn more, not just get the higher grade.

If there is no opportunity to improve on this specific project, ask the instructor for advice on what you might do on the next assignment or when preparing for the next test. You may be offered some individual help or receive good study advice, and your instructor will respect your willingness to make the effort—as long as it’s clear that you’re more interested in learning than getting a good grade.

Working with Instructors: Key Points

Go the extra mile: Talk to your professor when you

Need an extension

Need clarification on course material

Are experiencing challenges in your personal life that impact your academic performance

Are considering pursuing a major or graduate degree in their subject area

Visit early: Building rapport with your professors early in the semester will pay off if you need an extension or extra help later on. Professors like it when you visit office hours, but they don’t appreciate it when panicked students ask for an extension an hour before an assignment is due. Most professors will be very accommodating if you ask for help well in advance.

Show your interest: Professors want you to be as interested in their subject as they are. Nothing excites them more than knowing you are passionate about what they teach. You can show your interest by participating in class, attending office hours, and emailing your professors if you have questions.

Meet your professor: Professors have many responsibilities to juggle including research, teaching, traveling to conferences, and administrative tasks. However, they DO want to talk with you. Go to office hours and meet your professors!

Build relationships: Believe it or not, your professors are really interesting people. You might just enjoy their company. They can also open doors to academic research, serve as mentors, and may write you a reference letter down the road. Build strong relationships with your profs while you have the chance.

The following video from the University of Toronto Scarborough is a good summary of the ideas and guidelines shared in this section on working with instructors:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42lMFQqc4LI

There are a lot of different resources students can use to deepen their learning: peer communities, previous assignments, tests, and—perhaps most importantly—instructors. Your instructors want you to succeed: they can be great allies in your learning experience.

The following activity goes over some of the tips we covered for communicating with your instructors, and presents some examples for you to look at.

Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

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Working with Instructors. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of Tutoring Center. Provided by: Tulane Public Relations. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/672w8h. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

Profs and TAs. Provided by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rzQ_f4vzciM. License: CC BY: Attribution

Talking to your Profs and TAs. Provided by: University of British Columbia Learning Commons. Located at: http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/student-toolkits-2/interacting-with-profs/. License: CC BY: Attribution

Communicating with Instructors. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.candelalearning.com/sdvmaster/chapter/7-3-communicating-with-instructors/. License: CC BY: Attribution

All rights reserved content

Student/Faculty Relationships at Dickinson College. Authored by: Joe O'Neill. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZ0r4v7JBAk. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

How To: Communicate with Professors. Provided by: UTSC Academic Advising & Career Centre. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42lMFQqc4LI. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

35

Deep Learning

Learning never exhausts the mind. —Leonardo da Vinci

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify differences between passing a test and gaining knowledge (cramming versus learning)

List study techniques that help long-term retention of knowledge

Explain how peer groups can aid in class preparation

Learning Deeply[1][2][3]

What is the ultimate formula for learning at the deepest level? Is it raw intelligence, a great teacher, good studying habits, or a perfect study space? Is it critical thinking, creative thinking, a mindset of success or dogged determination?

The formula is probably a combination of all these things and more. Each student, though, will have unique stories to tell about how deep learning has occurred for them. In fact, stories about deep learning are the basis of What the Best College Students Do, a book by historian and educator Dr. Ken Bain. In writing this book, Dr. Bain conducted more than one hundred interviews with notable lifelong learners, like Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report and astrophysicist Neil DeGrasse Tyson. Dr. Bain asked each interviewee to talk about how they used their college experience to develop and feed their curiosity about topics that interested them—topics that came to define them in many ways. The deep learning each person experienced helped them go on to lead focused and purposeful lives.

If Dr. Bain were to interview you, what would you tell him about an experience you had in which you learned deeply? What factors account for how you absorbed knowledge during that experience and how you used the knowledge for something that mattered a lot to you? Conversely, which factors were missing when you had the experience of not learning deeply?

Learning deeply, says Dr. Bain, “doesn’t just mean the ability to remember stuff for an examination. It means the ability to create. It means the ability to analyze and synthesize, to solve problems, and to understand what that problem-solving means.” What matters most about the college experience and earning grades, he says, “is learning deeply, thinking about implications and applications, and expanding the powers of one’s mind. If students intend to learn deeply, grades will usually take care of themselves.”

In this section on deep learning, we examine key strategies you can use not only to get good grades but also to truly enjoy your learning experiences in college and to reap the greatest rewards from them in the future. Deep learning is a key to succeeding in college and in life.

Deep Learning vs. Cramming

How can you tell if you are actually engaged in deep learning? Dr. Bain offers the following classification of learners:

Surface learners: They do as little as possible to get by.

Strategic learners: They aim for the highest grades rather than for true understanding.

Deep learners: They gain a real, rich education in college because they pursue their passions more than grades. They are also comfortable with experimenting more than with “getting it right,” and they develop a personal connection to their studies.

Which learner do you feel you are now? Are you drawn to learn more deeply?

To illustrate the process of deep learning, let’s use an example of what deep learning  is not: “cramming” for a test―studying right before an exam without much preparation beforehand. Can you remember a time when you stayed up late to cram for a test the next day? How did it turn out for you? Did you pass the test? Did you learn much while you were cramming? How much do you remember now of the material you studied then?

The problem with cramming is that it doesn’t give the brain ample time to process information or to make the kinds of critical connections necessary for the brain to retrieve the information later on. When you cram, you simply forget what you have learned much faster than when you study diligently and steadily over an extended period of time.

Why would this matter? Why not just cram, take a test, do reasonably well, and move on to the next challenge?

One of the main reasons not to embrace this approach is that without learning deeply, you lose the opportunity to apply what you learn to other pursuits (in college and in life). For example, if you have classes later in college that build on earlier courses, will you retain and be able to apply what you should have learned from the classes in which you crammed? Will you need to learn the material on a deeper level this time?

Another cost of cramming is that you forgo the pleasure and satisfaction of acquiring knowledge at a deep level.

In sum, learning deeply goes beyond just test scores. It connects to skills you will need the rest of your life, like critical thinking, critical analysis, applying principles to solve problems, assessing your effectiveness, revising, and applying what you know.

So, if you are looking ahead to do well on a test or some other kind of assessment, avoid cramming. Start studying now and keep studying as you go along. Use your time-management skills and tools to make the time for it. Recall improves when studying is spread out over time, because every time you retrieve information or knowledge, you’re learning it more deeply. Also, by spreading out your studying, you can avoid mental exhaustion and having to cram before exams. Take study breaks to relax both mentally and physically.

Techniques for Learning and Retaining Knowledge

Sometimes the best way to learn a new idea is to first “unlearn” an old idea that’s hindering the new one. This is certainly the case with principles of learning, because there are many misconceptions about how people best acquire knowledge and retain it. Below, we identify and deconstruct some of these misconceptions and replace them with ideas you can use to help you learn deeply.

Myth 1: Talent Is Everything!

If you believe that your learning abilities are fixed, you’ll put up mental blocks that hinder your learning. For example, if you usually get straight A’s, you may avoid taking intellectual risks that take you out of your comfort zone or jeopardize your perfect record. Similarly, if you believe you are not good at something, like math, you may avoid really trying or lower your expectations.

But students who have a “growth mindset” toward learning, and who believe they can really improve over time and with effort, are the ones who who tend to take more chances, progress faster, and see risk and failure as part of the learning process.[4] “Research suggests that students who view intelligence as innate focus on their ability and its adequacy/inadequacy, whereas students who view intelligence as malleable use strategy and effort as they work toward mastery.”[5]

Bust the Myth

Know that your beliefs affect your behaviors. Cognitive psychologist Dr. Stephen Chew calls these “beliefs that make you stupid.” Watch his video, below, for suggestions on how to overcome these beliefs.

https://youtu.be/RH95h36NChI?list=PL85708E6EA236E3DB

Apply what you learn in practice. Practice builds accuracy and fluency. This fluency also builds the confidence and flexibility to apply what you’ve learned in different situations. Professor of mathematics, Michael Starbird, describes how practice leads to deeper understanding in the following video:

https://youtu.be/ii0xJDVF8c8

Feed your curiosity. Ask questions, perform experiments, talk to experts, work with others, make mistakes, and explore your questions from many different angles. This helps develop a mindset of growth and will take you farther in your development.

Myth 2: I Only Need One Good Method for Studying

If your tried-and-true study strategies aren’t working, use a different approach. Monitor your learning by measuring your knowledge against what you expect. Before you start studying, think about how it will go. Predict your homework and test results, and see if you’re accurate or not. Notice when your expectations fall short of reality, or overshoot it, and adjust your approach accordingly. This is called “metacognition,” and it’s an important part of deep learning.

Bust the Myth

Reflect on your studying by asking yourself these three questions: What did you do? Was it effective? What can you change? Practice self-testing, described in the following video:

https://youtu.be/xIDkTZtOUq8

Test your perceptions. After an exam, make a prediction of how many questions/problems you answered correctly. When you get the test back, see how your score matched with your prediction. If you were way off, consider changing your study strategy to incorporate more self-testing, spaced study sessions and varied approaches to practice.

Use strategies like generating your own questions and creating concept maps. Need some guidance? Take a look at the following video by Dr. Stephen Chew:

https://youtu.be/E9GrOxhYZdQ?list=PL85708E6EA236E3DB

Myth 3: If It’s Easy, I Must Be Learning

When faced with familiar terms or examples, you might find yourself feeling like you really understand the material. But in fact your brain might really just be responding to the fact that it has seen this exact material before. This is called the familiarity trap—when everything seems familiar and your brain doesn’t have to work so hard and so it feels like you’ve mastered the material, even though you haven’t. Try to mix things up as you’re studying.

More and more evidence suggests that confusion is where deep learning lies. It might even be that some level of confusion actually activates the parts of your brain that regulate learning and motivation, helping you achieve a greater level of understanding. If you’re not confused, you might not be learning.

Try not to let yourself get discouraged if it feels like you aren’t understanding something. Not understanding can be a good sign. For a brief explanation, see Learning Goes Through the Land of Confusion by Rhett Alan, a physics professor at Southern Louisiana University.

Bust the Myth

Retrieve—don’t regurgitate. Develop your own test questions, ask yourself questions, solve sample problems, and analyze for deeper meanings. Need some good questions to ask yourself? Try this: Why is this answer important? What does it relate to? How does this answer connect with what I already know? Can I elaborate this answer? Can I illustrate it with an example? Retrieving what you’ve learned from your memory helps you strengthen connections and relearn each time you do it, that is, every time you retrieve something from memory, you’re essentially re-learning it and creating different pathways for retrieval. The more paths you create to knowledge, the more likely it is that you’ll find a way there when you need it. You can find some more at the Teaching Professor Blog.

If you’re confused, don’t give up. Working hard to understand a problem or to figure something out isn’t a bad thing, and it will likely lead to a deeper understanding of the material, which will stay with you for a long time. This is especially important if your other courses build on that concept you are grappling with. If you need help developing new strategies, the following video might do the trick.

https://youtu.be/1xeHh5DnCIw

Myth 4: Planning My Learning Is a Waste of Time

Being a self-directed learner requires planning. Answering the five questions from the graphic, above, can help to build a disciplined approach, which will help you tackle your academic work.

Planning can also help you develop a workable schedule for studying. “Research shows spacing study episodes out with breaks in between study sessions or repetitions of the same material is more effective than massing such study episodes. Massing practice is akin to cramming all night before the test.”[6]

Planning reduces stress, helps you avoid cramming, and builds skills in metacognition. Planning is an important part of any career or occupation, so learning to plan well contributes to your overall competency. Even learning to plan takes practice, so start early!

Bust the Myth

Target your studying: Try to study key themes, and take what you know about the exam structure into account when you’re planning. If you know you’ll have an essay, write outlines! If you have to solve problems, go over homework or make up your own problems.

Review or practice throughout the term. Without regular review, you may have to relearn a large portion of the course right before the final.

Myth 5: Failure should be avoided at all costs

“Every success is built on the ash heap of failed attempts.” This reminder from Prof. Michael Starbird (University of Texas at Austin) offers a good reason not to fear failure. Failure doesn’t often feel good, but it may be your best teacher in helping you learn deeply. In fact, in the book 5 Elements of Effective Thinking, authors Edward Burger and Michael Starbird say that failure is an important foundation on which to build success.

But seeing failure as an opportunity for learning requires a fresh mindset. Once you make a mistake, you can ask, why is THAT wrong? Failure is an important aspect of much creative work, though it goes by a different name: iteration. Iteration is important in refining, working though problems, starting small, and refining until more can be added. Iteration is a feature of work in design, science, technology, and really any field where innovation is important.

Bust the Myth

Use failure as an opportunity to rethink and relearn. Ask yourself why you got it wrong and what happened. What is an alternative approach? How might a new approach be more successful? Watch Prof. Michael Starbird’s video about making mistakes as a strategy for learning:

https://youtu.be/Txq-bsbbhaY

Give yourself permission to fail. When working through problems or studying unfamiliar concepts, consider allowing yourself to fail nine times before getting it right. This may free your mind to think creatively about solutions without the pressure to “get it right.” You may find that repeated failures may actually lead you to new insights about the problem that you can take into other contexts.

Additional Study Techniques

The following are additional study techniques you can use to work your brain, raise your grades, perform well on assignments, and, most important, learn deeply.

Consider real-world applications. Use what you are learning when tackling real world events or problems, or consider real-world applications of what you’re learning. Reflect on how the skills and knowledge you are building can be used beyond college. This creates more pathways in your brain and can help keep you motivated.

Monitor your learning. Self-monitoring your learning includes evaluating, planning, and reflecting on your learning strategies and approaches. Reflecting on what you’ve done helps you see the value of certain strategies that leverage your strengths and improve on your weaknesses. It also increases your sense of control over outcomes.

Seek specific and meaningful feedback. Ask for and use feedback from instructors, teaching assistants, and peers to adjust your learning and studying techniques. This can help you avoid studying and working very hard without results.

Chunk the information you’re studying. With chunking, you break the concept you’re struggling with into smaller pieces, and sort those pieces by theme. Focus on understanding these chunks and they’ll be much easier to digest. Test yourself 5–15 minutes later. Mind maps and visual note taking can help with chunking.

Set priorities. Set realistic goals and prioritize your studying by surveying your syllabus, reviewing material, and identifying the most important topics covered in the class, or areas you’re struggling with.

Create association maps. Mind maps and concept maps can lead to meaningful learning, as they force you to reorganize and make sense of the information. Redo your notes as a diagram or as a concept map.

Make connections. What you’re learning ideally applies to the real world. Make connections between course concepts, different courses, and real-world situations. If you’re having trouble understanding something, ask yourself how these concepts apply to your life.

Ask questions to reduce bias. Check your thinking by asking questions about what you’re learning. What’s being said? Who is saying it? Why are they saying it? Who else says this? What do I believe? Why do I believe it? What’s missing? Asking good questions helps us solve problems, make thoughtful decisions, and think creatively.

Activity: Describe A Deep-Learning Experience

Objective

Identify differences between passing a test and gaining knowledge (cramming versus learning)

Directions

Review the list below of attributes of experiences that led to deep learning. Which of them remind you of an experience you had in which you learned deeply?

Write a journal-style reflection (1–2 pages) of the deep-learning experience you remember. When and where did it take place? How old were you? Were you with peers? Was it a classroom experience or did it take place in another environment—perhaps not a formal learning environment? What were your feelings at the time? What did you learn? Were you able to apply your newly gained knowledge to a real-world situation?

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

Some Attributes of Deep-Learning Experiences

Be actively involved with your learning.

Be engaged in real and meaningful learning activities.

Understand how the learning fits into a bigger picture beyond the structure of a course or class.

Engage in reflective writing that personalizes your learning.

Sense or believe that you are in a supportive environment without fear of making mistakes or fear of taking risks.

Sense a freedom from judgment of others.

Actively synthesize concepts.

Actively relate the information to your life and experience.

Actively integrate new ideas and knowledge with existing knowledge.

Engage in discussion with peers or others.

Take deep interest in the subject.

Reflect on your learning.

Getting the Most out of Peer Groups

Studying with fellow classmates and/or working with them on projects and class assignments can significantly enhance deep learning. Group work can help teams chunk bigger tasks into more manageable parts and steps. It can also help participants manage their time better. In addition, group work often involves discussion and collaboration, which can improve everyone’s understanding of the material. Another benefit is the opportunity for feedback on ideas and performance. And working in groups always helps members develop stronger communication skills—both speaking and listening skills.

Getting the most out of working in a group, though, itself requires some special skills. The following video, Group Work, from the University of British Columbia, offers some pointers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2yvNngrj1jo

Below is a summary of the key points in the video:

Know your strengths and learn what others can bring to the table. Consider these strengths when assigning roles or project tasks.

First meetings are key to setting a good tone. Plan enough time to

Learn people’s goals for the group

Learn people’s strengths

Assign roles

Set up a meeting schedule

Review the tools you will need to support your work (Google docs, Wiki page, etc.)

Be clear about everyone’s goals so that the group has a clear idea of what people expect to get from the group study process. Goals are important to motivation.

Get everyone working:

Assign tasks that play to individual strengths

Assign a progress-checker role to follow up on progress

Use meetings to review progress and provide guidance and support where needed.

Choose a good online tool to help you collect and respond to one another’s ideas and questions between meetings.

Conflict is natural and can be necessary to achieve collaboration. Learn to manage it.

Develop effective communication skills.

Work toward mutual understanding.

Keep group interests at the forefront.

Be flexible in looking for solutions.

Make sure solutions work for everyone.

"Fostering Deep Learning—A Report from the CFT's 25th Anniversary." Center for Teaching. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

"Secrets of the Most Successful College Students." Time. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

"Ken Bain: What the Best Students Do." Spin Education. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

Dweck, Carol (2009) Mindestonline.com Retrieved: May, 10, 2014. 

Ambrose, S.A, Lovett, M.C. (2014) Prior Knowledge is More Than Content: Skills and Beliefs Also Impact Learning, in Benassi, V. A., Overson, C. E., & Hakala, C. M. (Editors). (2014). Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum. Available at the Teaching of Psychology website: http://teachpsych.org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php.

Clark, C.M., Bjork, R.A. (2014) When and Why Introducing Difficulties and Errors Can Enhance Instruction, in Benassi, V. A., Overson, C. E., & Hakala, C. M. (Editors). (2014). Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum. Available at the Teaching of Psychology website: http://teachpsych.org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php.

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Deep Learning. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Studying. Authored by: English 106. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/english106/4357228667. License: CC BY: Attribution

Myths About Learning. Provided by: UBC . Located at: http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/tutoring-studying/myths-about-learning/. License: CC BY: Attribution

Learning and Memory. Provided by: UBC LEAP. Located at: http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/tutoring-studying/learning-and-memory/did-you-know/. License: CC BY: Attribution

Group Work. Provided by: UBC LEAP. Located at: https://youtu.be/2yvNngrj1jo. License: CC BY: Attribution

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How to Get the Most Out of Studying: Part 1 of 5, Beliefs That Make You Fail... Or Succeed. Provided by: Samford University. Located at: https://youtu.be/RH95h36NChI. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

The First Element of Effective Thinking: Understand Deeply. Provided by: College of Natural Sciences Video. Located at: https://youtu.be/ii0xJDVF8c8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

Self-Testing. Provided by: UTSchoolUGS. Located at: https://youtu.be/xIDkTZtOUq8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

How to Get the Most Out of Studying: Part 4 of 5, Putting Principles for Learning into Practice. Provided by: Samford University. Located at: https://youtu.be/E9GrOxhYZdQ. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

How to Get the Most Out of Studying: Part 3 of 5, Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning. Provided by: Samford University. Located at: https://youtu.be/1xeHh5DnCIw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

The Second Element of Effective Thinking: Make Mistakes. Provided by: College of Natural Sciences Video. Located at: https://youtu.be/Txq-bsbbhaY. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

36

Academic Honesty

I would prefer even to fail with honor than win by cheating. —Sophocles

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define academic honesty and common forms of academic dishonesty

Identify common scenarios that can lead to academic dishonesty, and possible consequences

Identify strategies for avoiding plagiarism

Academic Honesty and Dishonesty

At most educational institutions, “academic honesty” means demonstrating and upholding the highest integrity and honesty in all the academic work that you do. In short, it means doing your own work and not cheating, and not presenting the work of others as your own.

The following are some common forms of academic dishonesty prohibited by most academic institutions:

Cheating

Cheating can take the form of crib notes, looking over someone’s shoulder during an exam, or any forbidden sharing of information between students regarding an exam or exercise. Many elaborate methods of cheating have been developed over the years—from hiding notes in the bathroom toilet tank to storing information in graphing calculators, pagers, cell phones, and other electronic devices. Cheating differs from most other forms of academic dishonesty, in that people can engage in it without benefiting themselves academically at all. For example, a student who illicitly telegraphed answers to a friend during a test would be cheating, even though the student’s own work is in no way affected.

Deception

Deception is providing false information to an instructor concerning an academic assignment. Examples of this include taking more time on a take-home test than is allowed, giving a dishonest excuse when asking for a deadline extension, or falsely claiming to have submitted work.

Fabrication

Fabrication is the falsification of data, information, or citations in an academic assignment. This includes making up citations to back up arguments or inventing quotations. Fabrication is most common in the natural sciences, where students sometimes falsify data to make experiments “work” or false claims are made about the research performed.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism, as defined in the 1995 Random House Compact Unabridged Dictionary, is the “use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another author and the representation of them as one’s own original work.”[1] In an academic setting, it is seen as the adoption or reproduction of original intellectual creations (such as concepts, ideas, methods, pieces of information or expressions, etc.) of another author (whether an individual, group, or organization) without proper acknowledgment. This can range from borrowing a particular phrase or sentence to paraphrasing someone else’s original idea without citing it. Today, in our networked digital world, the most common form of plagiarism is copying and pasting online material without crediting the source.

Common Forms of Plagiarism

According to “The Reality and Solution of College Plagiarism” created by the Health Informatics department of the University of Illinois at Chicago, there are ten main forms of plagiarism that students commit:

Submitting someone else’s work as their own.

Taking passages from their own previous work without adding citations.

Rewriting someone’s work without properly citing sources.

Using quotations, but not citing the source.

Interweaving various sources together in the work without citing.

Citing some, but not all passages that should be cited.

Melding together cited and uncited sections of the piece.

Providing proper citations, but failing to change the structure and wording of the borrowed ideas enough.

Inaccurately citing the source.

Relying too heavily on other people’s work. Failing to bring original thought into the text.

As a college student, you are now a member of a scholarly community that values other people’s ideas. In fact, you will routinely be asked to reference and discuss other people’s thoughts and writing in the course of producing your own work. That’s why it’s so important to understand what plagiarism is and steps you can take to avoid it.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Below are some useful guidelines to help you avoid plagiarism and show academic honesty in your work:

Quotes: If you quote another work directly in your work, cite your source.

Paraphrase: If put someone else’s idea into your own words, you still need to cite the author.

Visual Materials: If you cite statistics, graphs, or charts from a study, cite the source. Keep in mind that if you didn’t do the original research, then you need to credit the person(s) or institution, etc. that did.

The easiest way to make sure you don’t accidentally plagiarize someone else’s work is by taking careful notes as you research. If you are doing research on the Web, be sure to copy and paste the links into your notes so can keep track of the sites you’re visiting. Be sure to list all the sources you consult.

There are many handy online tools to help you create and track references as you go. For example, you can try using Son of Citation Machine. Keeping careful notes will not only help you avoid inadvertent plagiarism; it will also help you if you need to return to a source later (to check or get more information). If you use citation tools like Son of Citation, be sure to check the accuracy of the citations before you submit your assignment.

Lastly, if you’re in doubt about whether something constitutes plagiarism, cite the source or leave the material out. Better still, ask for help. Most colleges have a writing center, a tutoring center, and a library where students can get help with their writing. Taking the time to seek advice is better than getting in trouble for not attributing your sources. Be honest about your ideas, and give credit where it’s due.

Consequences of Plagiarism

In the academic world, plagiarism by students is usually considered a very serious offense that can result in punishments such as a failing grade on the particular assignment, the entire course, or even being expelled from the institution. Individual instructors and courses may have their own policies regarding academic honesty and plagiarism; statements of these can usually be found in the course syllabus or online course description.

Activity: Gather Campus Resources

Objective

Identify common scenarios that can lead to academic dishonesty, and possible consequences

Directions

Indiana University has a clever list of different types of plagiarism. Their names for different types of plagiarism can help you learn how to avoid situations of academic dishonesty. Go to this link and read through the various examples. Jot down a few notes on examples that are new to you.

Start by finding information about plagiarism in one of your courses. You may find information on the course syllabus and/or the course Web site. You may want to bookmark this information or make a note to yourself. Knowing your rights as a student may help if there is a misunderstanding.

Stepchyshyn, Vera, and Robert S. Nelson. Library Plagiarism Policies. Chicago: College Library Information Packet Committee, College Libraries Section, Association of College and Research Libraries, 2007. Print. P. 65.

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Academic Dishonesty. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_dishonesty#cite_note-22. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Plagiarism. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

37

Evaluating Results

However beautiful the strategy, you should occasionally look at the results. —Winston Churchill

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the learning benefits of test taking

Identify strategies for learning from mistakes and from doing poorly on tests or exams

Learning from Testing and Test Results

Earlier in this module we discussed strategies for taking tests and for reducing the anxiety that can accompany them. We also touched on some reasons why tests are such a central part of the educational experience: namely, they yield important learning data that instructors and administrators can use to improve teaching and education. You may be thinking, “Well, I’m glad to help out and provide my valuable ‘learning data,’ but what about me? Tests still seem like a cruel exercise designed to torment students and stress them out.”

In this section we offer a response to that thought: believe it or not, testing benefits you, too. Consider the following:[1]

You may learn more when you take a test than when you study for it or are just taught the material. For example, if you are asked to learn five formulas for a math test, you will likely remember the three formulas you are actually tested on better than the others.

When you are tested—especially often—it encourages you to study more and procrastinate less.

The more you retrieve information, as you do during a test or quiz, the more likely you are to retain it in the long run.

Taking a test helps your brain organize knowledge better, and that helps you retrieve the knowledge more efficiently.

So, testing is not just a method of measuring how much you know (or torturing you). It can actually help you learn. In addition, the results of a test—even when you don’t do very well—can also enhance your learning in valuable ways.

Learning from Mistakes

Two of the most important messages that students hear from teachers is “Don’t be afraid to fail” and “Learn from your mistakes—yours, mine, and ours.” The following TedEd talk explores these familiar ideas. The speaker, Diana Laufenberg, makes the case for why learning through experience, feeling empowered, and embracing failure are all so important to students—so much more so than just going to school to get information. You can download a transcript of the video here.

https://www.ted.com/talks/diana_laufenberg_3_ways_to_teach?language=en

The idea of “learning from one’s mistakes” seems straightforward enough . . . but how does one actually do it? After all, who isn’t disappointed to get a low grade on anything—a test, a quiz, a paper, a project? We all want to do well. Consider the following college students evaluating their own performance:

I recently took a general biology exam and I was so certain that I got all questions right—that I got a 100 percent on the exam. Then I found out this morning that I got a 94 percent! And what annoys me more than the grade is the fact that my mistakes were dumb. Why did I make dumb mistakes? The tests are timed and I don’t have much time to check my answers.[2]

I’m so mad at myself. I’ve tried everything, I come back to look at the answer after I’ve completed the rest of the test. I go over the answers carefully. It seems as though no matter what I do I can’t catch my mistakes. I just did it on an accounting test. I missed one question because I didn’t notice the answer was “All of the above.” I have the same problem in another class.

At times we can be hard on ourselves, especially if we feel we could have done better. Learning from mistakes takes practice and reinforcement. As Diana Laufenberg pointed out in her Ted Talk, mistakes can be one of the most important events that happen in a classroom, because they tell you where you need to focus next.[3]

After you get over the disappointment of making a mistake in the first place, the next step is to home in on why you made it. That’s the learning opportunity. Below are some tips for following up on—and addressing—a range of errors that students commonly make on exams and other assessments.

Tips for Test Follow-up[4]

TEST-TAKING ERROR | WHERE TO FOCUS NEXT
I didn’t read the directions correctly. | Read all directions slowly and carefully. Underline or highlight key words so that you affirm your clear understanding.

I didn’t read the question properly.
Sometimes the brain sees what it wants to see rather than what is actually written or presented. This can happen if you didn’t study the right material or if you wanted to answer a question that isn’t quite the question you are being asked. If you are in a high-pressure situation, mistakes can be all the more an issue. Read each question thoroughly, then read it again. Underline or highlight key words.

I was careless. | Watch carefully for simple mistakes as you work each problem. Save time to review each problem step-by-step. Check again before you submit.
I just didn’t understand. | Go back to your study materials, textbook, or media and learn why you missed the problems. Talk with your instructor.
I knew the concept but I didn’t apply it properly to the problem. | When you are studying, practice predicting the type of problems that will be on the test. Ask in advance.
I messed up on the last part of the test. This seems to be a recurring problem. | If you find that you consistently miss more questions in a certain part of a test, use your remaining test time to review that part of the test first.
I didn’t complete the full problem. | When you review your test before turning it in, review the last step of a problem first. When the last steps are checked, then you can do a review of the full test.
I changed a few test answers from the correct ones to incorrect ones. | If you find this happening regularly, try not to second-guess yourself. You can write on your test “Don’t change answers.” Only change answers if you have double-checked and if you can prove to yourself that the changed answer is correct.
I got stuck on one problem and spent too much time on it. | Set a time limit for each problem before moving to the next one.
I have a tendency to rush through the easiest part of the test, and then I make silly errors. | After finishing the test, review the easy problems first, then review the harder problems. But do try to answer the easiest questions first; this way you get good points right off the bat, which can also increase your confidence. Answer trickier questions after the easier ones.
I had the correct answer on my scratch sheet but I copied it wrong onto the test. | Systematically compare your last problem step on scratch paper with the answer on the test. Place your scratch paper on top of the test paper, not off to the side.
I left some answers blank. | It usually pays to write something rather than nothing. Insert minimal information or the first step, etc.
I studied the wrong type of material. | Participating in a study group can help keep individuals on the right track. Start studying well in advance of an exam. Give yourself time to discover and focus.
I left the exam room a bit early. | You may be tempted to leave the exam room as soon as you believe you are truly done, but force yourself to take a little more time to review your work. You may find areas that could use tweaking, perhaps even spelling or grammar errors. Patience pays off.

I was tired.
Your body chemistry can help or hinder you during a test. Get a good night’s rest the night before an exam. Eat a solid breakfast in the morning. Avoid sugary items because they can cause your blood sugar to drop and make you sleepy or foggy brained. Some students meditate beforehand to clear and focus the mind and affirm an intention to do well.

I feel deflated by my grade. | You can learn from any mistakes and do better next time. Study more, review mistakes, and be sure to congratulate yourself for getting through the exam. Identify one fun thing you are proud of and happy about.

Reflection and Further Study

For some additional guidance on what to do in the event of failure and how to proceed with your studies, watch Dr. Stephen Chew’s video I Blew The Exam—Now What?

https://youtu.be/-QVRiMkdRsU

Chew emphasizes the following points:

What not to do:

Don’t panic

Don’t go into denial

What to do:

Do examine how you prepared; be honest with yourself

Do review the exam; compare errors with notes taken

Do talk with your professor

Do examine your study habits

Do develop a plan

Helpful strategies to raise your grade:

Commit time and effort

Minimize distractions

Attend class

Set realistic goals

Don’t begin to slide

Don’t give away points

Don’t be the student who . . .

Keeps studying the same way, hoping to improve

Waits until the end of the term to ask for help

Skips class to focus on other classes

Falls further behind waiting to find time to catch up

Crams at the last minute

Doesn’t do assignments because they are small or late

Panics and gives up

Activity: Learn from Returned Tests

Objective

Identify strategies for learning from mistakes and from doing poorly on tests or exams

Directions

Visit Duquesne University’s Web site, Help Students to Learn from Returned Tests. It has exam wrappers, post-test surveys, and error-analysis exercises you can use to help you learn from returned exams and perform better on future tests.

Keep in mind this sage advice: “All too often when students receive a graded exam, they focus on a single feature—the score they earned. Although this focus on ‘the grade’ is understandable, it can lead students to miss out on several learning opportunities that such an assessment can provide.” (Ambrose, et al, 2010)

"Ten Benefits of Quizzes and Tests in Educational Practice." Getting Results. 2012. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

"How to Avoid Making Stupid Mistakes on Exams?" Student Doctor Network. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

"Teaching Students to Embrace Mistakes." Edutopia. 2014. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

"10 Exam Mistakes That Lose Easy Marks and How to Avoid Them." Oxford Summer School 2016 with Oxford Royale Academy. 2014. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

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Evaluating Results. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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How to Get the Most Out of Studying: Part 5 of 5, I Blew the Exam, Now What?. Provided by: Samford University. Located at: https://youtu.be/-QVRiMkdRsU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

9

Mental and Physical Health Management

38

Nutrition

Just imagine, how much easier our lives would be if we were born with a “user guide or owner’s manual” which could tell us what to eat and how to live healthy. ―Erika M. Szabo, author

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define healthy eating habits

Describe the major risks of an unhealthy diet and the benefits of healthy eating

Recognize the temptations not to eat well in a college setting

Identify techniques for making healthy food choices

Before we start this section, take a moment to take an inventory of your current lifestyle. The following activity will ask you some questions to help you determine how you’re doing. These answers are not recorded, so please answer honestly so you can get a true assessment of yourself.

Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

A diet is anything that you consume on a regular basis. If you drink Diet Coke for breakfast every day, that’s part of your diet. When people talk about “going on a diet,” they usually mean changing their existing dietary habits in order to lose weight or change their body shape. All people are on a diet because everyone eats! Having a healthy diet means making food choices that contribute to short- and long-term health. It means getting the right amounts of nutrient-rich foods and avoiding foods that contain excessive amounts of less healthy foods. The right mix can help you be healthier now and in the future.

Developing eating healthy eating habits doesn’t require you to sign up for a gimmicky health-food diet or lifestyle: you don’t have to become vegan, gluten-free, “paleo,” or go on regular juice fasts. The simplest way to create a healthy eating style is by learning to make wise food choices that you can enjoy, one small step at a time. The key is choosing a variety of foods and beverages from each food group (vegetables, fruits, grains, protein foods, and dairy)—and making sure that each choice is limited in sodium, saturated fat, and added sugars.[1] The following current USDA Healthy Eating Guidelines replace the old “food pyramid.”

USDA Healthy Eating Guidelines

Make half your plate fruits and vegetables: Focus on whole fruits, and vary your veggies

Choose whole fruits—fresh, frozen, dried, or canned in 100% juice.

Enjoy fruit with meals, as snacks, or for a dessert.

Try adding fresh, frozen, or canned vegetables to salads, side dishes, and recipes.

Choose a variety of colorful veggies prepared in healthful ways: steamed, sautéed, roasted, or raw.

Make half your grains whole grains

Look for whole grains listed first or second on the ingredients list—try oatmeal, popcorn, whole-grain bread, and brown rice.

Limit grain desserts and snacks, such as cakes, cookies, and pastries.

Vary your protein routine

Mix up your protein foods to include a variety—seafood, beans and peas, unsalted nuts and seeds, soy products, eggs, and lean meats and poultry.

Try main dishes made with beans and seafood, like tuna salad or bean chili.

Move to low-fat or fat-free milk or yogurt

Choose fat-free milk, yogurt, and soy beverages (soy milk) to cut back on your saturated fat.

Replace sour cream, cream, and regular cheese in recipes and dishes with low-fat yogurt, milk, and cheese.

Drink and eat less sodium, saturated fat, and added sugars

Eating fewer calories from foods high in saturated fat and added sugars can help you manage your calories and prevent overweight and obesity. Most of us eat too many foods that are high in saturated fat and added sugar.

Eating foods with less sodium can reduce your risk of high blood pressure.

Use the Nutrition Facts label and ingredients list to compare foods and drinks. Limit items high in sodium, saturated fat, and added sugars.

Use vegetable oils instead of butter, and choose oil-based sauces and dips instead of those with butter, cream, or cheese.

Drink water instead of sugary drinks.

Eat the right amount

Eat the right amount of calories for you based on your age, sex, height, weight, and physical activity level. Visit the USDA SuperTracker, which can help you plan, analyze, and track your diet and physical activity.

Building a healthier eating style can help you avoid overweight and obesity and reduce your risk of diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.

The following short video recaps the USDA’s current healthy eating guidelines:

https://youtu.be/87xBZisdodY

Healthy Eating in College

College offers many temptations for students trying to create or maintain healthy eating habits. You may be on your own for the first time, and you’re free to eat whatever you want, whenever you want. Cafeterias, all-you-can-eat dining facilities, vending machines, and easy access to food twenty-four hours a day make it tempting to overeat or choose foods loaded with calories, saturated fat, sugar, and salt. You may not be in the habit of shopping or cooking for yourself yet, and, when you find yourself short on time or money, it may seem easier to fuel yourself on sugary, caffeinated drinks and meals at the nearest fast-food place. Also, maybe you played basketball or volleyball in high school, but now you don’t seem to be getting much exercise.

On top of that, it’s common for people to overeat (or not eat enough) when they feel anxious, lonely, sad, or stressed, and college students are no exception. It’s incredibly important, though, to develop healthy ways of coping and relaxing that don’t involve reaching for food, drink, or other substances. It’s also important to eat regular healthy meals to keep up your energy.

Kidshealth.org offers the following advice on ways for college students to adopt a healthy food attitude:[2]

avoid eating when stressed, while studying, or while watching TV

eat slowly

eat at regular times and try not to skip meals

keep between-meal and late-night snacking to a minimum

choose a mix of nutritious foods

pick lower-fat options when you can, such as low-fat milk instead of whole milk or light salad dressing instead of full-fat dressing

watch the size of your portions

resist going back for additional servings

steer clear of vending machines and fast food

keep healthy snacks like fruit and vegetables on hand in your room

replace empty-calorie soft drinks with water or skim milk

Activity: Assess Your Snacking Habits

Objective

Recognize the temptations not to eat well in a college setting

Directions

Keep a daily snack journal for one week: Write down the types and amounts of snack foods and beverages you consume between meals each day. Record the time of day and note where you eat/drink each item.

At the end of the week, review your journal. Do you notice any unhealthy snacks or empty-calorie drinks? Are there any patterns? Are there times of day when you’re especially prone to choosing unhealthy snacks/drinks? Are there particular places where you tend to reach for junk food?

In a short, reflective essay (1–2 pages long), describe what you observed about your snacking habits during the week. Identify any habits you’d like to change, and explain why. Describe several strategies you could use to break bad habits and replace unhealthy snacks with healthier ones. Explain why you think these strategies will be effective.

Follow your instructor’s instructions for submitting assignments.

"MyPlate." Choose. 2015. Web. 15 Apr. 2016.

"Beating the Freshman 15." Kidshealth.org. Web. 3 Mar 2016.

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Nutrition. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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39

Exercise

If you are in a bad mood, go for a walk. If you are still in a bad mood, go for another walk. —Hippocrates, Greek physician

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the benefits of regular exercise, for both body and brain

Plan a regular exercise program that works for you

Regular Exercise: Health for Life

The importance of getting regular exercise is probably nothing new to you. The health benefits are well known and established: Regular physical activity can produce long-term health benefits by reducing your risk of many health problems, such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes, and it can also increase your chances of living longer, help you control your weight, and even help you sleep better.

As a busy college student, you may be thinking, I know this, but I don’t have time! I have classes and work and a full life! What you may not know is that—precisely because you have such a demanding, possibly stressful schedule—now is the perfect time to make exercise a regular part of your life. Getting into an effective exercise routine now will not only make it easier to build healthy habits that you can take with you into your life after college, but it can actually help you be a more successful student, too. As you’ll see in the section on brain health, below, exercise is a powerful tool for improving one’s mental health and memory—both of which are especially important when you’re in school.

The good news is that most people can improve their health and quality of life through a modest increase in daily activity. You don’t have to join a gym, spend a lot of money, or even do the same activity every time—just going for a walk or choosing to take the stairs (instead of the elevator) can make a difference. The following video describes how much activity you need:

https://youtu.be/lEutFrar1dI

Physical Fitness and Types of Exercise

Physical fitness is a state of well-being that gives you sufficient energy to perform daily physical activities without getting overly tired or winded. It also means being in good enough shape to handle unexpected emergencies involving physical demands—that is, if someone said, “Run for your life!” or you had to rush over and prevent a child from falling, you’d be able to do it.

There are many forms of exercise—dancing, rock climbing, walking, jogging, yoga, bike riding, you name it—that can help you become physically fit. The major types are described below.

Aerobic Exercise

Aerobic exercise increases your heart rate, works your muscles, and raises your breathing rate. For most people, it’s best to aim for a total of about thirty minutes a day, four or five days a week. If you haven’t been very active recently, you can start out with five or ten minutes a day and work up to more time each week. Or, split up your activity for the day: try a brisk ten-minute walk after each meal. If you are trying to lose weight, you may want to exercise more than thirty minutes a day. The following are some examples of aerobic exercise:

A brisk walk (outside or inside on a treadmill)

Dancing

A low-impact aerobics class

Swimming or water aerobic exercises

Ice-skating or roller-skating

Playing tennis

Riding a stationary bicycle indoors

Strength Training

Strength training, done several times a week, helps build strong bones and muscles and makes everyday chores like carrying heavy backpacks (or grocery bags) easier. When you have more muscle mass, you burn more calories, even at rest. Here are some ways to do it:

Join a class to do strength training with weights, elastic bands, or plastic tubes (if your college has a gym, take advantage of it!)

Lift light weights at home

Flexibility Exercises

Flexibility exercises, also called stretching, help keep your joints flexible and reduce your risk of injury during other activities. Gentle stretching for 5 to 10 minutes helps your body warm up and get ready for aerobic activities such as walking or swimming. Check to see if your college offers yoga, stretching, and/or pilates classes, and give one a try.

Being Active Throughout the Day

In addition to formal exercise, there are many opportunities to be active throughout the day. Being active helps burns calories. The more you move around, the more energy you will have. The following strategies can help you increase your activity level:

Walk instead of drive whenever possible

Take the stairs instead of the elevator

Work in the garden, rake leaves, or do some housecleaning every day

Park at the far end of the campus lot and walk to class

Benefits of Exercise and Physical Fitness

Longevity

Exercise, even after age fifty, can add healthy, active years to one’s life. Studies continue to show that it’s never too late to start exercising and that even small improvements in physical fitness can significantly lower the risk of death. Simply walking regularly can prolong your life.

Moderately fit people—even if they smoke or have high blood pressure—have a lower mortality rate than the least fit. Resistance training is important because it’s the only form of exercise that can slow and even reverse the decline of muscle mass, bone density, and strength. Adding workouts that focus on speed and agility can be especially protective for older people. Flexibility exercises help reduce the stiffness and loss of balance that accompanies aging.

Diabetes

Diabetes, particularly type 2, is reaching epidemic proportions throughout the world as more and more cultures adopt Western-style diets (which tend to be high in sugar and fat). Aerobic exercise is proving to have significant and particular benefits for people with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes; it increases sensitivity to insulin, lowers blood pressure, improves cholesterol levels, and decreases body fat. In fact, studies show that people who engage in regular, moderate aerobic exercise (e.g., brisk walking, biking) lower their risk for diabetes even if they do not lose weight. Anyone on insulin or who has complications from diabetes should get advice from a physician before embarking on a workout program.

Brain: Mood, Memory, Creativity

In addition to keeping your heart healthy, helping with weight loss, and helping you live longer, regular exercise can also improve your mood and help keep depression and anxiety at bay. The following video explains why and challenges you to give it a try:

https://youtu.be/mJW7dYXPZ2o

If you still aren’t persuaded, check out this slightly longer but excellent Tedx Talk, which describes how aerobic exercise can improve your cognitive functioning, memory, and creativity:

https://youtu.be/LdDnPYr6R0o

Activity: Develop an Exercise Program

Objective

Plan a regular exercise program that works for you

Directions

Sometimes getting started is the hardest part of being physically active. The important thing is to find activities you like to do, so you’ll stick with them. Watch the following video, which can help you understand how much activity you need to do on a regular basis and how you can get going on a sensible routine. The video includes personal stories from people—even busy people like you—who have discovered what works for them.

https://youtu.be/qNdoOd11Vi8

List 3 physical activities that you enjoy doing or would like to try doing on a regular basis.

Identify any special requirements or equipment you need before doing them (for example, gym membership, running shoes, etc.).

Set a realistic, weekly exercise time goal for yourself (150 minutes or more per week is ideal, but start with what you can really do).

Using a digital or printed calendar, plan and label the days of the week, times, and places that you plan to exercise. Specify the activity or activities that you intend to do. (For example: Monday, 6–7 a.m., 30 min on stationary bike, college gym; Wednesday, 2–3 p.m., 60 min speed-walking with Maya, Riverside Park; Saturday, 1–2 p.m, lift weights, college gym.)

Track your progress for one week, recording the amount of time you actually exercised. If you engaged in any unplanned physical activities (say you ended up riding your bike to school instead of taking the bus), include those, too.

Write about your experience in a short journal entry (1–2 pages) and reflect on what you learned:

What kinds of exercise did you engage in, and which did you enjoy the most?

What was your weekly time goal? Did you meet it?

What worked or didn’t work?

What might you need to change in order to make exercise a regular habit?

Follow your instructor’s instructions for submitting assignments.

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Physical Activity Guidelines. Provided by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Located at: https://youtu.be/lEutFrar1dI. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

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40

Sleep

Sleep is that golden chain that ties health and our bodies together. —Thomas Dekker

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify benefits of sleep for both physical and mental health

Examine your current sleep habits

Identify ways to ensure good sleep habits and high-quality sleep, especially during periods of stress

The Benefits of Slumber

We have so many demands on our time—school, jobs, family, errands, not to mention finding some time to relax. To fit everything in, we often sacrifice sleep. But sleep affects both mental and physical health. Like exercise and a healthy diet, it’s vital to your well-being.

Of course, sleep helps you feel rested each day. But while you’re sleeping, your brain and body don’t just shut down. Internal organs and processes are hard at work throughout the night. Sleep can help you “lock in” everything you’re studying and trying to remember.

“Sleep services all aspects of our body in one way or another: molecular, energy balance, as well as intellectual function, alertness and mood,” says Dr. Merrill Mitler, a sleep expert and neuroscientist at NIH.

When you’re tired, you can’t function at your best. Sleep helps you think more clearly, have quicker reflexes, and focus better. “The fact is, when we look at well-rested people, they’re operating at a different level than people trying to get by on one or two hours less nightly sleep,” says Mitler.

“Loss of sleep impairs your higher levels of reasoning, problem-solving, and attention to detail,” Mitler explains. Tired people tend to be less productive at work and school. They’re at a much higher risk for traffic accidents. Lack of sleep also influences your mood, which can affect how you interact with others. A sleep deficit over time can even put you at greater risk for developing depression.

But sleep isn’t just essential for the brain. “Sleep affects almost every tissue in our bodies,” says Dr. Michael Twery, a sleep expert at NIH. “It affects growth and stress hormones, our immune system, appetite, breathing, blood pressure and cardiovascular health.”

Research shows that lack of sleep increases the risk for obesity, heart disease, and infections. Throughout the night, your heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure rise and fall, a process that may be important for cardiovascular health. Your body releases hormones during sleep that help repair cells and control the body’s use of energy. These hormone changes can affect your body weight.

“Ongoing research shows a lack of sleep can produce diabetic-like conditions in otherwise healthy people,” says Mitler.

Recent studies also reveal that sleep can affect the efficiency of vaccinations. Twery described research showing that well-rested people who received the flu vaccine developed stronger protection against the illness.

A good night’s sleep consists of four to five sleep cycles. Each cycle includes periods of deep sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, when we dream. “As the night goes on, the portion of that cycle that is in REM sleep increases. It turns out that this pattern of cycling and progression is critical to the biology of sleep,” Twery says.

Sleep can be disrupted by many things. Stimulants such as caffeine or certain medications can keep you up. Distractions such as electronics—especially the light from TVs, cell phones, tablets and e-readers—can prevent you from falling asleep.

How Much Sleep Do We Need?

The amount of sleep each person needs depends on many factors, including age, and getting a full night of quality sleep is important. Infants generally require about sixteen hours a day, while teenagers need about nine hours on average. For most adults, seven to eight hours a night appears to be the best amount of sleep. The amount of sleep a person needs also increases if he or she has been deprived of sleep in previous days. Getting too little sleep creates a “sleep debt,” which is a lot like being overdrawn at a bank. Eventually, your body will demand that the debt be repaid. We don’t seem to adapt to getting less sleep than we need; while we may get used to a sleep-depriving schedule, our judgment, reaction time, and other functions are still impaired. If you’re a student, that means that sleep-deprivation may prevent you from studying, learning, and performing as well as you can.

People tend to sleep more lightly and for shorter time spans as they get older, although they generally need about the same amount of sleep as they needed in early adulthood. Experts say that if you feel drowsy during the day, even during boring activities, you haven’t had enough sleep. If you routinely fall asleep within five minutes of lying down, you probably have severe sleep deprivation, possibly even a sleep disorder. “Microsleeps,” or very brief episodes of sleep in an otherwise awake person, are another mark of sleep deprivation. In many cases, people are not aware that they are experiencing microsleeps. The widespread practice of “burning the candle at both ends” in western industrialized societies has created so much sleep deprivation that what is really abnormal sleepiness is now almost the norm.

Many studies make it clear that sleep deprivation is dangerous. Sleep-deprived people who are tested by using a driving simulator or by performing a hand-eye coordination task perform as badly as or worse than those who are intoxicated. Sleep deprivation also magnifies alcohol’s effects on the body, so a fatigued person who drinks will become much more impaired than someone who is well rested. Driver fatigue is responsible for an estimated 100,000 motor vehicle accidents and 1,500 deaths each year, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Since drowsiness is the brain’s last step before falling asleep, driving while drowsy can—and often does—lead to disaster. Caffeine and other stimulants cannot overcome the effects of severe sleep deprivation. The National Sleep Foundation says that if you have trouble keeping your eyes focused, if you can’t stop yawning, or if you can’t remember driving the last few miles, you are probably too drowsy to drive safely.

Activity: Assess Your Sleep Habits

Objective

Examine your current sleep habits

Directions

Take a few minutes to review and assess your own sleep habits. Are you getting enough?

 Check the appropriate boxes: | Usually | Sometimes | Never
I get 7–8 hours of sleep at night. |  |  |
I feel sleepy or have trouble focusing during the day. |  |  |
I take a nap when I feel drowsy or need more sleep. |  |  |
I fall asleep or have trouble staying awake in class. |  |  |
I fall asleep while studying. |  |  |
I stay up all night to study for exams or write papers. |  |  |

Track how much sleep you get each night during a one-week period.

At the end of the week, write a short journal entry (1–2 pages) in which you reflect on your current sleep habits:

How many hours of sleep do you think you need every night to function at your best? How can you tell?

On an average, how many hours of sleep did you get on weeknights?

On average, how many hours of sleep did you get on weekend nights?

How would you rank the importance of sleep compared with studying, working, spending time with friends/family, and other activities? What things get in the way of your consistently getting enough sleep?

What changes can you make to your schedule and/or routines that might improve your sleep habits?

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

Falling Asleep and Getting a Good Night’s Rest

Many people, especially those who feel stressed, anxious, or overworked, have a hard time falling asleep and/or staying asleep, and this can shorten the amount of time and the quality of sleep when it actually comes. The following tips can help you get to sleep, stay asleep, and wake up feeling well rested:

Set a schedule: Go to bed at a set time each night and get up at the same time each morning. Disrupting this schedule may lead to insomnia. “Sleeping in” on weekends also makes it harder to wake up early on Monday morning because it resets your sleep cycles for a later awakening.

Exercise: Try to exercise 20 to 30 minutes a day. Daily exercise often helps people sleep, although a workout soon before bedtime may interfere with sleep. For maximum benefit, try to get your exercise about 5 to 6 hours before going to bed.

Avoid caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol before bed: Avoid drinks that contain caffeine, which acts as a stimulant and keeps people awake. Sources of caffeine include coffee, chocolate, soft drinks, non-herbal teas, diet drugs, and some pain relievers. Smokers tend to sleep very lightly and often wake up in the early morning due to nicotine withdrawal. Alcohol robs people of deep sleep and REM sleep and keeps them in the lighter stages of sleep.

Relax before bed: A warm bath, reading, or another relaxing routine can make it easier to fall sleep. It’s also a good idea to put away books, homework, and screens (computer and phone) at least 30 minutes before bed. You can train yourself to associate certain restful activities with sleep and make them part of your bedtime ritual.

Sleep until sunlight: If possible, wake up with the sun, or use very bright lights in the morning. Sunlight helps the body’s internal biological clock reset itself each day. Sleep experts recommend exposure to an hour of morning sunlight for people having problems falling asleep.

Don’t lie in bed awake: If you can’t get to sleep, don’t just lie in bed. Do something else, like reading or listening to music, until you feel tired. (Avoid digital screens, though: watching TV, and being on the computer or a smartphone are too stimulating and will actually make you more wakeful.) The anxiety of being unable to fall asleep can actually contribute to insomnia.

Control your room temperature: Maintain a comfortable temperature in the bedroom. Extreme temperatures may disrupt sleep or prevent you from falling asleep.

Screen out noise and light: Sleep with earplugs and use an eye pillow to drown out any bright lights and noise of loud roommates, etc.

See a doctor if your sleeping problem continues: If you have trouble falling asleep night after night, or if you always feel tired the next day, then you may have a sleep disorder and should see a physician. Your primary care physician may be able to help you; if not, you can probably find a sleep specialist at a major hospital near you. Most sleep disorders can be treated effectively, so you can finally get that good night’s sleep you need.

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41

Substance Abuse

An overindulgence of anything, even something as pure as water, can intoxicate. ―Criss Jami, author

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain what substance use and abuse is and identify the warning signs that help may be needed

Describe the effects of smoking cigarettes on the body

Describe the effects of alcohol use and abuse on the body

Describe the effects of prescription and illegal drug use and abuse on the body

Identify resources for further information and guidance about substance abuse

Introduction

A drug is a chemical substance that can change how your body and mind work. Drugs of abuse are substances that people use to get high and change how they feel. They may be illegal drugs like pot, cocaine, or heroin. Or they may be legal for adults only, like alcohol and tobacco.

Medicines that treat illness can also become drugs of abuse when people take them to get high—not because they’re sick and following their doctor’s orders. People can even abuse cough or cold medicines from the store if they ignore the directions and take too much at one time.

People abuse drugs for many reasons:

They want to feel good. Taking a drug can feel really good for a short time. That’s why people keep taking them—to have those good feelings again and again. But even though someone may take more and more of a drug, the good feelings don’t last. Soon the person is taking the drug just to keep from feeling bad.

They want to stop feeling bad. Some people who feel very worried, afraid, or sad abuse drugs to try to stop feeling so awful. This doesn’t really help their problems and can lead to addiction, which can make them feel much worse.

They want to do well in school or at work. Some people who want to get good grades, get a better job, or earn more money might think drugs will give them more energy, keep them awake, or make them think faster. But it usually doesn’t work, may put their health at risk, and may lead to addiction.

Cigarettes and Tobacco

It might surprise you to learn that cigarettes and other forms of tobacco are drugs. It’s legal to use tobacco once you’re 18 or 19 years old, depending on where you live. But it’s not healthy for you at any age.

Tobacco contains nicotine, a substance that excites the parts of the brain that make you feel good. You can get addicted to nicotine just like other drugs.

When you use tobacco, the nicotine quickly gives you a mild rush of pleasure and energy. But it soon wears off, which makes you want to use it some more. Sometimes, the rush of energy that comes with nicotine can make you nervous and edgy.

Electronic cigarettes: Read NIDA’s DrugFacts: Electronic Cigarettes (e-Cigarettes) for information about electronic cigarettes, including how safe they are compared to tobacco cigarettes.

Effects of Cigarettes and Tobacco on the Body and Brain

These are just some of the problems cigarettes and tobacco can cause:

Lung diseases: Cigarette smoke causes lung cancer and painful breathing diseases like emphysema. These diseases can happen to people who smoke, or to others around them who breathe in their smoke.

Bad breath, bad teeth, mouth cancer: Cigarettes and other kinds of tobacco stain teeth and cause bad breath. Chewing tobacco can make teeth fall out and lead to cancer of the mouth.

Heart and blood problems: If you smoke, you are more likely to have a heart attack or stroke (sometimes called a “brain attack”).

Hurts babies: If a pregnant woman uses tobacco, her baby might be born too early or too small. This can cause health problems for the baby.

More diseases: Using cigarettes or other kinds of tobacco can lead to heart disease and many kinds of cancer.

Addiction: The nicotine in tobacco is what makes you addicted. When you smoke, the effects wear off quickly. This makes you want to keep using tobacco again and again throughout the day. The more you do this, the more your body and brain get addicted to the nicotine. Fortunately, there are medicines, other treatments, and hotlines that can help people quit tobacco.

Alcohol

Drinks like beer, malt liquor, wine, and hard liquor contain alcohol. Alcohol is the ingredient that gets you drunk.

Hard liquor—such as whiskey, rum, or gin—has more alcohol in it than beer, malt liquor, or wine.

The following drink sizes contain about the same amount of alcohol:

1 ½ ounces of hard liquor

5 ounces of wine

8 ounces of malt liquor

12 ounces of beer

Being drunk can make a person feel very silly, angry, or sad for no reason. It can make it hard to walk in a straight line, talk clearly, or drive.

Effects of Alcohol on the Body and Brain

Drinking too much–on a single occasion or over time—can take a serious toll on your health.  Here’s how alcohol can affect your body and brain:

Brain: Alcohol interferes with the brain’s communication pathways and can affect the way the brain looks and works. These disruptions can change mood and behavior, and make it harder to think clearly and move with coordination.

Heart: Drinking a lot over a long time or too much on a single occasion can damage the heart, causing problems such as stroke, high blood pressure, and arrhythmia.

Liver: Heavy drinking takes a toll on the liver and can lead to a variety of problems such as alcoholic hepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis

Pancreas: Alcohol causes the pancreas to produce toxic substances that can eventually lead to pancreatitis, a dangerous inflammation and swelling of the blood vessels in the pancreas that prevents proper digestion.

Cancer: Drinking too much alcohol can increase your risk of developing certain cancers, including cancers of the mouth, esophagus, throat, liver, and breast.

Immune system: Drinking too much can weaken your immune system, making your body a much easier target for disease.  Chronic drinkers are more liable to contract diseases like pneumonia and tuberculosis than people who do not drink too much.  Drinking a lot on a single occasion slows your body’s ability to ward off infections—even up to twenty-hour hours after getting drunk.

So how much is “drinking too much”? The following guidelines are from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism:

Drinking Levels Defined

Moderate alcohol consumption: According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, moderate drinking is up to 1 drink per day for women and up to 2 drinks per day for men.

Binge drinking: Binge drinking is a pattern of drinking that brings blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels to 0.08 g/dL. This typically occurs after 4 drinks for women and 5 drinks for men—in about 2 hours. Binge drinking has become a major health and safety issue on college campuses.

Heavy drinking: Heavy drinking is defined as drinking 5 or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days.

Low risk for developing an alcohol use disorder: For women, low-risk drinking is no more than 3 drinks on any single day and no more than 7 drinks per week. For men, it’s defined as no more than 4 drinks on any single day and no more than 14 drinks per week. NIAAA research shows that only about 2 in 100 people who drink within these limits have an alcohol use disorder.  Even within these limits, you can have problems if you drink too quickly or have other health issues.

Certain people should avoid alcohol completely, including those who

Plan to drive a vehicle or operate machinery

Take medications that interact with alcohol

Have a medical condition that alcohol can aggravate

Are pregnant or trying to become pregnantThree wine glasses on a flat surface with dark red, light red, and yellow liquid. The surface level of each liquid is at a tilt that would be impossible on an actual flat surface.

Marijuana

Marijuana is a green, brown, or gray mix of dried, crumbled leaves from the marijuana plant. It can be rolled up and smoked like a cigarette (called a joint) or a cigar (called a blunt). Marijuana can also be smoked in a pipe. Sometimes people mix it in food and eat it.

Marijuana can make you feel silly, relaxed, sleepy, and happy—or nervous and scared. It may change your senses of sight, hearing, and touch. It can also make it hard to think clearly.

Effects of Marijuana on the Body and Brain

These are just some of the problems marijuana can cause:

Memory problems: Marijuana makes it hard to remember things that just happened a few minutes ago. That makes it hard to learn in school or to pay attention to your job. A recent study showed that if you begin regular marijuana use as a teen, you can lose an average of 8 IQ points, and do not get them back, even if you stop using the drug.

Heart problems: Using marijuana makes the heart beat fast and raises your risk of having a heart attack.

Coughing and breathing problems: Marijuana smokers can get some of the same coughing and breathing problems as cigarette smokers. Marijuana smoke can hurt your lungs.

Drugged driving: Driving when you’re high on marijuana is dangerous, just like driving drunk. Your reactions to traffic signs and sounds are slow. It’s hard to pay attention to the road. And it’s even worse when you’re high on marijuana and alcohol at the same time.

You stop caring: Over time, marijuana users can get “burnt out.” They don’t think about much or do much. They can’t concentrate. They don’t seem to care about anything.

Addiction: Although some people don’t know it, you can get addicted to marijuana after using it for a while. This is more likely to happen to people who use marijuana every day, or who started using it when they were teenagers.

Cocaine (Coke, Crack)

Cocaine is a white powder. It can be snorted up the nose or mixed with water and injected with a needle. Cocaine can also be made into small white rocks, called crack. It’s called crack because when the rocks are heated, they make a cracking sound. Crack is smoked in a small glass pipe.

Cocaine can make a person feel full of energy, but also restless, scared, or angry.

Effects of Cocaine on the Body and Brain

These are just some of the problems cocaine can cause:

You feel sick: Cocaine can cause stomach pain and headaches. It can make you shake, throw up, or pass out.

No appetite: Cocaine can make you not want to eat. Over time, you might lose a lot of weight and get sick.

Heart attack and stroke: Cocaine raises your blood pressure and makes your heart beat faster. This can hurt your heart. It can give you a heart attack or stroke (brain injury from a blood clot). Some people die because of it.

HIV/AIDS, hepatitis: People who inject (shoot up) cocaine can get HIV/AIDS and hepatitis (a liver disease) if they share used needles. People also get these diseases by having unsafe sex. They may forget to use condoms because they’re high on the drug.

Addiction: It is easy to lose control over cocaine use and become addicted. Then, even if you get treatment, it can be hard to stay off the drug. People who stopped using cocaine can still feel strong cravings for the drug, sometimes even years later.

Heroin

Heroin is a white or brown powder or a black, sticky goo. It can be mixed with water and injected with a needle. Heroin can also be smoked or snorted up the nose.

Heroin causes a rush of good feelings just after it’s taken. But some people throw up or itch after taking it. For the next several hours you want to sleep, and your heart rate and breathing slow down. Then the drug wears off and you may feel a strong urge to take more.

Effects of Heroin on the Body and Brain

These are just some of the problems heroin can cause:

Sick and itchy: Heroin can make you throw up and feel very itchy.

You stop breathing: Heroin can slow or stop your breathing. It can kill you.

HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis: Sharing used needles to inject (shoot up) heroin can give you HIV/AIDS and hepatitis (a liver disease).

Overdose: People overdose on heroin because they can’t tell how strong it is until they take it. Signs of a heroin overdose are slow breathing, blue lips and fingernails, cold clammy skin, and shaking. You can die from a heroin overdose. People who might be overdosing should be taken to the emergency room immediately.

Coma: Heroin can put you in a coma. That’s when nothing can wake you up, and you may die.

Addiction: It is very easy to become addicted to heroin. Then, even if you get treatment, it’s hard to stay away from the drug. People who stopped using heroin can still feel strong cravings for the drug, sometimes years later. Fortunately, there are medicines that can help someone recover from heroin addiction.

Meth (Crank, Ice)

Methamphetamine—meth for short—is a white, bitter powder. Sometimes it’s made into a white pill or a clear or white shiny rock (called a crystal).

Meth powder can be eaten or snorted up the nose. It can also be mixed with liquid and injected into your body with a needle. Crystal meth is smoked in a small glass pipe.

Meth at first causes a rush of good feelings, but then users feel edgy, overly excited, angry, or afraid. Their thoughts and actions go really fast. They might feel too hot.

Effects of Meth on the Body and Brain

These are just some of the problems meth can cause:

You overheat: Meth can make your body temperature so hot that you pass out. Sometimes this can kill you.

Crank bugs: Meth can make you feel like bugs are crawling on or under your skin. It makes you scratch a lot. Scratching causes sores on your face and arms.

Meth mouth: Meth users’ teeth become broken, stained, and rotten. Meth users often drink lots of sweet things, grind their teeth, and have dry mouth. This is called “meth mouth.”

You look old: People who use meth start looking old. Meth users burn a lot of energy and don’t eat well. This can make them lose weight and look sick. Their hands or body might shake. Their skin looks dull and has sores and pimples that don’t heal. Their mouth looks sunken as the teeth go bad.

HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis: People who inject (shoot up) meth can get HIV/AIDS or hepatitis (a liver disease) if they share used needles. People also get these diseases by having unsafe sex. They often forget to use condoms because they’re high on the drug.

Addiction: Meth use can quickly lead to addiction and hurt different parts of your brain. It can cause thinking and emotional problems that don’t go away or that come back again even after you quit using the drug. For instance, you might feel, hear, or see things that aren’t there. You might think that people are out to get you, or start believing strange ideas that can’t really be true.

Prescription Pain Medicine (OxyContin, Vicodin)

Pain medicines relieve pain from surgery or injuries. You need a prescription from a doctor to buy some strong kinds of these medicines. Prescription pain medicines are legal and helpful to use when a doctor orders them to treat your medical problem.

But people sometimes take these without a doctor’s prescription to get high or to try to treat themselves or their friends. Drug dealers sell these pills just like they sell heroin or cocaine. Some people borrow or steal these pills from other people.

Some people think that prescription pain medicines are safer to abuse than “street” drugs because they are medicines. Prescription pain medicine abuse can be as dangerous as heroin or cocaine abuse.

Oxycodone is one pain medicine that people often abuse. Sometimes it goes by the brand names OxyContin® or Percocet®. Another one that is often abused is hydrocodone. One of its brand names is Vicodin®.

Pain medicines are usually white, round, or oval pills. They can be taken whole, smoked, or crushed into a powder that is snorted or injected.

Like heroin, pain pills can cause a rush of good feeling when they’re first taken, but they can also make you want to throw up. They can make you very sleepy, and you can get addicted to them.

Effects of Pain Medicine Abuse on the Body and Brain

These are just some of the problems pain medicine abuse can cause:

You stop breathing: Pain medicine abuse can slow down or even stop your breathing.

Coma: Pain medicine abuse can put you in a coma. That’s when nothing can wake you up.

Addiction: Prescription pain medicines can be as addictive as heroin—especially if they are smoked or injected. Then, even if you get treatment, it’s hard to stay away from the drug. Fortunately, there are medicines that can help someone recover from prescription pain medicine addiction.

Overdose: Signs of a pain medicine overdose are cold and sweaty skin, confusion, shaking, extreme sleepiness, trouble breathing, and coma.

Death: Many people die from pain medicine overdoses. In fact, more people overdose from pain medicines every year than from heroin and cocaine combined.

Other Drugs of Abuse

There are many other drugs of abuse, including:

Ecstasy (X, E, XTC) is a pill that is often taken at parties and clubs. It is sometimes called the “love drug” because it makes people feel very friendly and touchy. It also raises body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure, and can make you feel sad for days after its effects wear off. Click here for more information about ecstasy.

K2 or Spice (fake weed, Skunk) is a drug made from shredded dried plant materials and chemicals. It is usually smoked. The “high” feels about the same as the “high” from marijuana. Spice users sometimes end up in the emergency room with rapid heart rates, vomiting and other uncomfortable side effects. K2/Spice is illegal. Click here for more information about K2/Spice.

LSD (acid) comes in pills or on small pieces of paper that have been soaked in liquid LSD. It makes you see, hear, and feel things that aren’t there. You might see bright colors, pretty pictures, or things that scare you. Click here for more information about LSD.

PCP (angel dust) is a pill or powder that can be eaten, smoked, or snorted up the nose. It makes people feel far away from the world around them. PCP often makes people feel angry and violent, not happy and dreamy. Click here for more information about PCP.

Inhalants are dangerous chemicals that make you feel high when you breathe them into your lungs (also called huffing or sniffing). These chemicals are found in household cleaners, spray cans, glue, and even permanent markers. Inhalants can make you pass out, stop your heart and your breathing, and kill you. Click here for more information about inhalants.

Club Drugs
Some drugs are called “club drugs” because they are sometimes passed around at nightclubs and parties:

GHB is a liquid or powder that can make you pass out. It’s called a “date rape” drug because someone can secretly put it in your drink. This means that you can’t fight back or defend yourself. Then they will have sex with you without your permission.

Rohypnol (roofies) is a date rape pill and can also be put in a drink.

Ketamine (K, Special K) makes you feel far away from what’s going on around you and can feel scary and unpleasant. It is usually taken by mouth, snorted up the nose, or injected with a needle.

Click here for more information about these drugs.

Bath Salts are drugs made with chemicals like the “upper” found in the Khat plant. They are only sold with the name “Bath Salts” to make them look harmless. These drugs can make you “high” but they can also make you shaky, afraid, and violent. They look like a white or brown shiny powder and are sold in small packages labeled “not for human consumption.” They can be taken by mouth, by inhaling into the lungs, or with a needle. Some people end up in the emergency room or even die after taking bath salts. Click here for more information about bath salts.

When and Where to Get Help 

Here’s a simple way to think about substance use and abuse: If your use of drugs or alcohol is interfering with your life—negatively affecting your health, work, school, relationships, or finances—it’s time to quit or seek help. People who are addicted to a substance continue to abuse even though they know it can harm their physical or mental health, lead to accidents, or put others in danger. The following video dispels some myths about who is at risk of addiction:

https://youtu.be/SY2luGTX7Dk

Know that first six weeks of the first semester is an especially critical and vulnerable time for most first-year students. Because lots of students get into the habit of drinking heavily and partying during these early days of college, there’s a risk that excessive alcohol consumption will interfere with successful adaptation to campus life. The transition to college is often difficult, and about one-third of first-year students fail to enroll for their second year.Consequences of High-risk College Drinking Chart - Deaths 1,825; Sexual Assaults 97,000; Injuries 599,000; and Assaults 696,00

If you are concerned about your drug or alcohol use, or you need help quitting, visit the student health center or talk with your college counselor. These folks are there to help you—it’s their job to provide information and support.

If you need additional resources or help, the following are good places to check:

Drug Information Online

Prevention Hub

Drug and Alcohol Treatment Hotline: 1-800-662-HELP

Activity: When and Where to Get Help for Substance Abuse

Objectives

Explain what substance use and abuse is and identify the warning signs that help may be needed

Identify resources for further information and guidance about substance abuse

Directions

Pick a topic: Choose alcohol or one of the drugs discussed in this section on Substance Abuse.

Consider the following scenario: You suspect that one of your college friends may be abusing this drug. Your goal is to educate yourself about the signs of abuse and collect resources that you can share with him/her.

Visit one of the following Web sites to get initial relevant information on your topic. You can research other sites, if you chose a topic that’s not listed here.

Cigarettes/Tobacco

Alcohol

Marijuana

Cocaine

Heroin

Meth

Prescription Pain Medicines

Research additional sites to identify local resources where someone like your friend might go, or places to call, for help.

Creative writing assignment: Write a 2-page letter to the fictional friend in which you share your concerns about his/her behavior and offer to help. Be sure to touch on the following:

The type of substance

The behavior(s) you’ve noticed your friend engaging in that worry you and cause you to suspect a substance abuse problem

The source of your information, which you’re sharing with your friend. For example: “I learned about the signs of heroin abuse from this Web site: . . .”

Why you think your friend should quit using or cut down

Your suggestions for what your friend should do and where to seek help. Give the names and contact information for at least 3 resources/organizations you found.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

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Anyone Can Become Addicted to Drugs. Authored by: National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA/NIH). Located at: https://youtu.be/SY2luGTX7Dk. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

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Drugs That People Abuse. Provided by: NIH, NIAAA . Located at: https://easyread.drugabuse.gov/content/drugs-people-abuse. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

What Is Addiction. Provided by: NIH. Located at: http://nihseniorhealth.gov/drugabuse/illicitdrugabuse/01.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Fall Semester-A Time For Parents To Revisit Discussions About College Drinking. Provided by: NIH, NIAAA. Located at: http://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/NIAAACollegeMaterials/collegeFactSheetForParents.aspx. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

42

Stress

Being in control of your life and having realistic expectations about your day-to-day challenges are the keys to stress management, which is perhaps the most important ingredient to living a happy, healthy and rewarding life. —Marilu Henner, actress

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify sources of stress, particularly for college students

Describe the symptoms and effects of chronic stress

List healthy ways of managing stress that fit your current lifestyle

Causes of Stress

As a student, you’re probably plenty familiar with the experience of stress—a condition characterized by symptoms of physical or emotional tension. What you may not know is that it’s a natural response of the mind and body to a situation in which a person feels threatened or anxious. Stress can be positive (e.g., preparing for a wedding) or negative (e.g., dealing with a natural disaster).

Stress can hit you when you least expect it—before a test, after losing a job, or during conflict in a relationship. If you’re a college student, it may feel like stress is a persistent fact of life. While everyone experiences stress at times, a prolonged bout of it can affect your health and ability to cope with life. That’s why social support and self-care are important. They can help you see your problems in perspective . . . and the stressful feelings ease up.

Sometimes stress can be good. For instance, it can help you develop skills needed to manage potentially challenging or threatening situations in life. However, stress can be harmful when it is severe enough to make you feel overwhelmed and out of control.

Strong emotions like fear, sadness, or other symptoms of depression are normal, as long as they are temporary and don’t interfere with daily activities. If these emotions last too long or cause other problems, it’s a different story.

Signs and Effects of Stress

Physical or emotional tension are often signs of stress. They can be reactions to a situation that causes you to feel threatened or anxious. The following are all common symptoms of stress:

Disbelief and shock

Tension and irritability

Fear and anxiety about the future

Difficulty making decisions

Being numb to one’s feelings

Loss of interest in normal activities

Loss of appetite (or increased appetite)

Nightmares and recurring thoughts about the event

Anger

Increased use of alcohol and drugs

Sadness and other symptoms of depression

Feeling powerless

Crying

Sleep problems

Headaches, back pains, and stomach problems

Trouble concentrating

It’s not only unpleasant to live with the tension and symptoms of ongoing stress; it’s actually harmful to your body, too. Chronic stress can impair your immune system and disrupt almost all of your body’s processes, leading to increased risk of numerous health problems, including the following:[1]

Anxiety

Depression

Digestive problems

Heart disease

Sleep problems

Weight gain

Memory and concentration impairment

That’s why it’s so important to learn healthy ways of coping with the stressors in your life.

Ways of Managing Stress

The best strategy for managing stress is by taking care of yourself in the following ways:

Avoid drugs and alcohol. They may seem to be a temporary fix to feel better, but in the long run they can create more problems and add to your stress—instead of taking it away.

Manage your time. Work on prioritizing and scheduling your commitments. This will help you feel in better control of your life, which, in turn, will mean less stress.

Find support. Seek help from a friend, family member, partner, counselor, doctor, or clergy person. Having a sympathetic listening ear and talking about your problems and stress really can lighten the burden.

Connect socially. When you feel stressed, it’s easy to isolate yourself. Try to resist this impulse and stay connected. Make time to enjoy being with classmates, friends, and family; try to schedule study breaks that you can take with other people.

Slow down and cut out distractions for a while. Take a break from your phone, email, and social media.

Take care of your health.

Eat a healthy, well-balanced diet

Exercise regularly

Get plenty of sleep

Try a relaxation technique, such as meditation or yoga, or treat yourself to a massage

Maintain a normal routine

The following video features a progressive muscle relaxation meditation for you to try. There are many many others available on YouTube and elsewhere.

https://youtu.be/PYsuvRNZfxE

If the self-care techniques listed above aren’t enough and stress is seriously interfering with your studies or life, don’t be afraid to get help. The student health center and college counselors are both good resources.

Activity: Reduce Your Stress Level

Objective

List healthy ways of managing stress that fit your current lifestyle

Directions

Identify at least three things you currently do to cope with stress that aren’t working or aren’t good for you.

Identify healthy replacements for each of them, and write yourself a “stress-relief prescription” that you plan to follow for one week. Try to include one stress management technique to use every day. At the end of the week, respond to the following prompts in a short, reflective essay (1–2 pages):

Which ineffective or unhealthy coping strategies did you set out to change and why?

Which stress-relief techniques did you try during the week? Were any of them new for you? Which ones were most effective?

How much do you think stress affects you in your current life at college? Do you feel like you have it under control or not? If not, what else might you do to reduce your stress level?

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress/art-20046037

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Stress. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of man on stairs. Authored by: Heinrich Plum. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/yowUpj. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives

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Progressive Muscle Relaxation Meditation. Provided by: UNH Health Services. Located at: https://youtu.be/PYsuvRNZfxE. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

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Coping with Stress. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/coping_with_stress_tips.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

43

Mental Health

It is only in sorrow bad weather masters us; in joy we face the storm and defy it. —Amelia Barr, British author

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the difference between occasional negative emotions and more serious mental health issues, such as anxiety disorder or depression

Explore practices for ensuring mental health and emotional balance in your life

Identify resources for further information and guidance about mental health issues

Mental Health Basics

Knowing how to take care of your mental health when you’re in college is just as important as maintaining your physical health. In fact, there’s a strong link between the two: doctors are finding that positive mental health can actually improve your physical health.

So, what is “mental health”? Mental health can be defined as “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.”[1] Having good mental health doesn’t necessarily mean being happy or successful all the time. Most people feel depressed, lonely, or anxious now and then, but those with good mental health can take these feelings in stride and overcome them. When such feelings or moods persist and interfere with a person’s ability to function normally, though, it may be a sign of a more serious mental health problem and time to seek help.

The term mental illness refers to mental disorders or health conditions characterized by “alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior (or some combination thereof) associated with distress and/or impaired functioning.”[2] Depression is the most common type of mental illness, and it affects more than 26 percent of the U.S. adult population. It has been estimated that by the year 2020, depression will be the second leading cause of disability throughout the world, trailing only ischemic heart disease.

Evidence has shown that mental disorders, especially depressive disorders, are strongly linked to the occurrence and course of many chronic diseases—including diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, asthma, and obesity and many risk behaviors for chronic disease, such as physical inactivity, smoking, excessive drinking, and insufficient sleep. In other words, if your mental health is poor, you may be at greater risk for disease and poor physical health.

Mental Health Indicators

In the public health arena, more emphasis and resources have been devoted to screening, diagnosis, and treatment of mental illness than mental health. Little has been done to protect the mental health of those who are free from mental illness. There are some known indicators of mental health, including the following:

Emotional well-being: life satisfaction, happiness, cheerfulness, peacefulness.

Psychological well-being: self-acceptance, personal growth including openness to new experiences, optimism, hopefulness, purpose in life, control of one’s environment, spirituality, self-direction, and positive relationships.

Social well-being: social acceptance, belief in the potential of people and society as a whole, personal self-worth and usefulness to society, and a sense of community.

The former surgeon general suggests that there are social determinants of mental health—just as there are social determinants of general health—that need to be in place to support mental health. These include adequate housing, safe neighborhoods, equitable jobs and wages, quality education, and equity in access to quality health care.

There are also some common-sense strategies that you can adopt to support and improve your emotional, psychological, and social health. Not surprisingly, they are very similar to the strategies one uses to cope with stress:

Eat a balanced diet

Get enough sleep

Get regular physical activity

Stay socially connected with friends and family

Make smart choices about alcohol and drugs

Get help if you are anxious or depressed

Depression

Depression is a common but serious mood disorder that’s more than just a feeling of “being down in the dumps” or “blue” for a few days. It causes severe symptoms that affect how you feel, think, and handle daily activities, such as sleeping, eating, or working. To be diagnosed with depression, the symptoms must be present for at least two weeks.

If you have been experiencing some of the following signs and symptoms most of the day, nearly every day, for at least two weeks, you may be suffering from depression:

Persistent sad, anxious, or “empty” mood

Feelings of hopelessness, or pessimism

Irritability

Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness

Loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies and activities

Decreased energy or fatigue

Moving or talking more slowly

Feeling restless or having trouble sitting still

Difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions

Difficulty sleeping, early-morning awakening, or oversleeping

Appetite and/or weight changes

Thoughts of death or suicide, or suicide attempts

Aches or pains, headaches, cramps, or digestive problems without a clear physical cause and/or that do not ease even with treatment

Depression is one of the most common mental disorders in the United States. Current research suggests that depression is caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. It usually starts between the ages of fifteen and thirty, and is much more common in women. Women can also get postpartum depression after the birth of a baby. Some people get seasonal affective disorder in the winter, when there is less natural sunlight. Depression is one part of bipolar disorder.

Depression, even the most severe cases, can be treated. The earlier that treatment can begin, the more effective it is. Depression is usually treated with medications, psychotherapy, or a combination of the two.

There are days that you will feel down, especially when the demands of college get to you. These feelings are normal and will go away. If you are feeling low, try to take a break from the pressures of college and do something you enjoy. Spend time with friends, exercise, read a good book, listen to music, watch a movie, call a friend, talk to your family, or anything else that makes you feel good. If you feel depressed for two weeks, or the feeling keeps coming back, you should talk to a counselor in the health services/center. They see lots of students who are anxious, stressed, or depressed at college.

Loneliness

Most people experience occasional loneliness, and it’s an especially common experience among first-time college students, who find themselves in an unfamiliar environment with a completely new social scene. Loneliness isn’t necessarily about being alone—you can be surrounded by people and still feel alone. It’s the feeling of being alone that counts, along with feeling empty, unwanted, or isolated. In the following Ted Talk, Sherrie Turkle describes how, in this age of near-constant digital “connection,” loneliness is a challenge that faces us all:

https://youtu.be/t7Xr3AsBEK4

If you’re feeling lonely, try taking Turkle’s advice and start a conversation with someone. College is a great place to meet new people and develop new and interesting relationships. Others in college are new, just like you, and will welcome the chance to connect with and get to know another classmate. Try joining a campus interest group or club, play a team sport, or just ask another student if they’d like to meet for coffee or to study.

If feelings of loneliness persist, and especially if you also feel depressed, you should get help from a counselor or health services.

Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are mental health illnesses that involve emotional and behavioral disturbance surrounding weight and food issues. The most common are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. Eating disorders can have life-threatening consequences.

Anorexia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation and extreme weight loss either through restriction or through binge-purging. This may frequently be a result of body dysmorphic disorder (a condition in which someone feels that their body looks differently than it actually does) or a result of other psychiatric complications such as OCD or depression. Starvation can cause harm to vital organs such as the heart and brain, can cause nails, hair, and bones to become brittle, and can make the skin dry and sometimes yellow or covered with soft hair. Menstrual periods can become irregular or stop completely.

People with bulimia nervosa eat large amounts of food (also called bingeing) at least two times a week and then vomit (also called purging) or exercise compulsively. Because many people who “binge and purge” maintain their body weight, they may keep their problem a secret for years. Vomiting can cause loss of important minerals, life-threatening heart arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat), damage to the teeth, and swelling of the throat. Bulimia can also cause irregular menstrual periods.

People who binge without purging also have a disorder called binge eating disorder. This is frequently associated with feelings of loss of control and shame surrounding eating. People who are diagnosed with this disorder tend to gain weight, and many will have all of the consequences of being overweight, including high blood pressure and other cardiac symptoms, diabetes, and musculoskeletal complaints.

If you think you might have an eating disorder, you should go to the student health center or counseling center and get help. Talk with your family and close friends. Going for help and talking to others about your feelings and illness can be very difficult, but it’s the only way that you’re going to get better. Many colleges have treatment programs for these conditions and trained counselors who can relate to people with an eating disorder.

Anxiety Disorders

People with anxiety disorders respond to certain objects or situations with fear and dread. They have physical reactions to those objects, such as a rapid heartbeat and sweating. An anxiety disorder is diagnosed if a person:

Has an inappropriate response to a situation

Cannot control the response

Has an altered way of life due to the anxiety

Anxiety disorders include the following:

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a type of anxiety disorder. If you have OCD, you have repeated, upsetting thoughts called obsessions. You do the same thing over and over again to try to make the thoughts go away. Those repeated actions are called compulsions. Examples of obsessions are a fear of germs or a fear of being hurt. Compulsions include washing your hands, counting, checking on things or cleaning. Untreated, OCD can take over your life. Researchers think brain circuits may not work properly in people who have OCD. It tends to run in families. The symptoms often begin in children or teens. Treatments that combine medicines and therapy are often effective.

Panic disorder is a kind of anxiety disorder that causes panic attacks. Panic attacks are sudden feelings of terror for no reason. You may also feel physical symptoms, such as

Fast heartbeat

Chest pain

Breathing difficulty

Dizziness

Panic attacks can happen anytime, anywhere and without warning. You may live in fear of another attack and may avoid places where you have had an attack. For some people, fear takes over their lives and they cannot leave their homes.

Panic disorder is more common in women than men. It usually starts when people are young adults. Sometimes it starts when a person is under a lot of stress. Most people get better with treatment. Therapy can show you how to recognize and change your thinking patterns before they lead to panic. Medicines can also help.

A phobia is a strong, irrational fear of something that poses little or no actual danger. There are many specific phobias. Acrophobia is a fear of heights. You may be able to ski the world’s tallest mountains but be unable to go above the fifth floor of an office building. Agoraphobia is a fear of public places, and claustrophobia is a fear of closed-in places. If you become anxious and extremely self-conscious in everyday social situations, you could have a social phobia. Other common phobias involve tunnels, highway driving, water, flying, animals, and blood. People with phobias try to avoid what they are afraid of. If they cannot, they may experience

Panic and fear

Rapid heartbeat

Shortness of breath

Trembling

A strong desire to get away

Treatment helps most people with phobias. Options include medicines, therapy or both.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a real illness. You can get PTSD after living through or witnessing a traumatic event, such as war, a hurricane, rape, physical abuse, or a bad accident. PTSD makes you feel stressed and afraid after the danger is over. It affects your life and the people around you. PTSD can cause problems like

Flashbacks, or feeling like the event is happening again

Trouble sleeping or nightmares

Feeling alone

Angry outbursts

Feeling worried, guilty, or sad

PTSD starts at different times for different people. Signs of PTSD may start soon after a frightening event and then continue. Other people develop new or more severe signs months or even years later. PTSD can happen to anyone, even children.

Medicines can help you feel less afraid and tense. It might take a few weeks for them to work. Talking to a specially trained doctor or counselor also helps many people with PTSD. This is called talk therapy.

Suicidal Behavior

Suicide causes immeasurable pain, suffering, and loss to individuals, families, and communities nationwide. On average, 112 Americans die by suicide each day. Suicide is the second leading cause of death among 15–24-year-olds, and more than 9.4 million adults in the United States had serious thoughts of suicide within the past twelve months. But suicide is preventable, so it’s important to know what to do.

Warning Signs of Suicide

If someone you know is showing one or more of the following behaviors, he or she may be thinking about suicide. Don’t ignore these warning signs. Get help immediately.

Talking about wanting to die or to kill oneself

Looking for a way to kill oneself

Talking about feeling hopeless or having no reason to live

Talking about feeling trapped or in unbearable pain

Talking about being a burden to others

Increasing the use of alcohol or drugs

Acting anxious or agitated; behaving recklessly

Sleeping too little or too much

Withdrawing or feeling isolated

Showing rage or talking about seeking revenge

Displaying extreme mood swings

Get Help

If you or someone you know needs help, call the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1.800.273.TALK (8255). Trained crisis workers are available to talk 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

If you think someone is in immediate danger, do not leave him or her alone—stay there and call 911.

Resources

OK2TALK is a community for young adults struggling with mental health problems. It offers a safe place to talk.

Activity

Objectives

Identify the difference between occasional negative emotions and more serious mental health issues, such as anxiety disorder or depression

Explore practices for ensuring mental health and emotional balance in your life

Identify resources for further information and guidance about mental health issues

Directions

Watch the following Tedx Talk, featuring college student Jack Park. In this talk, Jack shares his story of living with a mental disorder and revisits some of the ways he found help and hope. He makes the case for seeing mental illness in a new light, so that people can begin to address some of the issues associated with suicide, depression, and other preventable mental disorders.

https://youtu.be/ur8TZf6HWSs

Write a short (1–2 pages) response paper in which you address the following questions:

What do you think of Jack’s practice of changing his “to-do” lists into “want-to-do” lists? What does he hope to gain from this shift?

Which coping mechanisms does Jack observe his fellow students using to deal with stress and mental health challenges? What does Jack think is the deeper problem?

Why, in Jack’s view, is it hard for people to get help for mental health problems in the same way they might seek help for dental problems?

Add your own thoughts about the obstacles you think students may face in getting help for mental health issues.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

"Mental Health Basics." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.

"Mental Health Basics." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.

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Mental Health. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Distraught Woman. Authored by: jazbeck. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jazbeck/8025692978/. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Sherry Turkle: Connected, but Alone?. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://youtu.be/t7Xr3AsBEK4. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

Shedding Light on Student Depression | Jack Park | TEDxPenn. Provided by: Tedx Talks. Located at: https://youtu.be/ur8TZf6HWSs. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

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Mental Health Basics. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/basics.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

College Health. Provided by: National Institutes of Health. Located at: https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/collegehealth.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

44

Sexual Health

In my day we didn’t have sex education, we just picked up what we could off the television. —Victoria Wood, actress

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify sexually healthy behaviors, including protecting against unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease

Identify risks of sexual assault, including date rape, and where to go for help

Sexuality is a big part of being human. Love, affection, and sexual intimacy all play a role in healthy relationships. They also contribute to your sense of well-being. Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination, and violence.

Your sexuality is your own private business, of course, but whether you abstain from sexual intercourse or decide to become or continue being sexually active, the decisions you make can affect the health and safety of your sexual partner(s)—just as their decisions can affect yours. Therefore, it’s important to get the facts about what you can do to protect yourself (and your partner) from sexually transmitted disease, unwanted pregnancy, and sexual violence.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

STDs are diseases that are passed from one person to another through sexual contact. These include chlamydia, gonorrhea, genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV), syphilis, and HIV. Many of these STDs do not show symptoms for a long time, but they can still be harmful and passed on during sex.

You can get an STD by having sex (vaginal, anal, or oral) with someone who has an STD. Anyone who is sexually active can get an STD. You don’t even have to “go all the way” (have anal or vaginal sex) to get an STD, since some STDs, like herpes and HPV, are spread by skin-to-skin contact.

STDs are common, especially among young people. There are about twenty million new cases of STDs each year in the United States, and about half of these are in people between the ages of fifteen and twenty-four. Young people are at greater risk of getting an STD for several reasons:

Young women’s bodies are biologically more susceptible to STDs.

Some young people do not get the recommended STD tests.

Many young people are hesitant to talk openly and honestly with a doctor or nurse about their sex lives.

Not having insurance or transportation can make it more difficult for young people to access STD testing.

Some young people have more than one sex partner.

Types of STDS

Chlamydia

Chlamydia is a common STD that can infect both men and women. It can cause serious, permanent damage to a woman’s reproductive system, making it difficult or impossible for her to get pregnant later on. Chlamydia can also cause a potentially fatal ectopic pregnancy (pregnancy that occurs outside the womb).

You can get chlamydia by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has chlamydia. If your sex partner is male you can still get chlamydia even if he does not ejaculate (cum). If you’ve had chlamydia and were treated in the past, you can still get infected again if you have unprotected sex with someone who has chlamydia. If you are pregnant, you can give chlamydia to your baby during childbirth.

Most people who have chlamydia have no symptoms. However, symptoms can include a burning sensation when urinating and/or discharge from the penis or vagina. If you do have symptoms, they may not appear until several weeks after you have sex with an infected partner. Even when chlamydia causes no symptoms, it can damage your reproductive system.

Chlamydia can be cured with the right treatment. When the medication is taken properly, it will stop the infection and could decrease your chances of having complications later on. Repeat infection with chlamydia is common. You should be tested again about three months after you are treated, even if your sex partner(s) was treated.

Genital Herpes

Genital herpes is an STD caused by two types of viruses. The viruses are called herpes simplex type 1 and herpes simplex type 2.

You can get herpes by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has the disease. Fluids found in a herpes sore carry the virus, and contact with those fluids can cause infection. You can also get herpes from an infected sex partner who does not have a visible sore or who may not know he or she is infected because the virus can be released through your skin and spread the infection to your sex partner(s).

Most people who have herpes have no or very mild symptoms and, as a result, don’t know they have it. You may not notice mild symptoms or you may mistake them for another skin condition—like a pimple or ingrown hair.

Genital herpes sores usually appear as one or more blisters on or around the genitals, rectum, or mouth. The blisters break and leave painful sores that may take weeks to heal. These symptoms are sometimes called “having an outbreak.” The first time someone has an outbreak they may also have flu-like symptoms such as fever, body aches, or swollen glands.

Repeat outbreaks of genital herpes are common, especially during the first year after infection. Repeat outbreaks are usually shorter and less severe than the first outbreak. Although the infection can stay in the body for the rest of your life, the number of outbreaks tends to decrease over a period of years.

You should be examined by your doctor if you notice any of these symptoms or if your partner has an STD or symptoms of an STD, such as an unusual sore, a smelly discharge, or burning when urinating.

There is no cure for herpes. However, there are medicines that can prevent or shorten outbreaks. One of these herpes medicines can be taken daily and makes it less likely that you will pass the infection on to your sex partner(s).

Gonorrhea

Gonorrhea is an STD that can infect both men and women. It can cause infections in the genitals, rectum, and throat. It’s a very common infection, especially among young people ages 15–24 years.

Gonorrhea often doesn’t have recognizable symptoms—or they may be mistaken for bladder or vaginal infections. Symptoms include a burning sensation when urinating, abnormal discharge from the penis or vagina, and bleeding between periods. Rectal infection symptoms include itching, burning, and bleeding.

You should be examined by your doctor if you notice any of these symptoms or if your partner has an STD or symptoms of an STD, such as an unusual sore, a smelly discharge, burning when urinating, or bleeding between periods.

Gonorrhea can be cured with the right treatment. Although medication will stop the infection, it will not undo any permanent damage caused by the disease.

It’s becoming harder to treat some gonorrhea, as drug-resistant strains of gonorrhea are increasing. If your symptoms continue for more than a few days after receiving treatment, you should return to a health care provider to be checked again.

HIV/AIDS

HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. It kills or damages the body’s immune system cells. AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is the most advanced stage of infection with HIV.

HIV most often spreads through unprotected sex with an infected person. It may also spread by sharing drug needles or through contact with the blood of an infected person. Women can give it to their babies during pregnancy or childbirth.

The first signs of HIV infection may be swollen glands and flu-like symptoms. These may come and go a month or two after infection. Severe symptoms may not appear until months or years later.

A blood test can tell if you have HIV infection. Your health care provider can perform the test, or call the national referral hotline at 1-800-CDC-INFO (24 hours a day, 1-800-232-4636 in English and en español; 1-888-232-6348 – TTY).

There is no cure, but there are many medicines to fight both HIV infection and the infections and cancers that come with it. People can live with the disease for many years, especially if they are diagnosed and treated early. Early diagnosis is also important to reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to others.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

HPV is the most common STD. HPV is different from the viruses that cause HIV and HSV (herpes). HPV is so common that nearly all sexually active men and women get it at some point in their lives. There are many different types of HPV. Some types can cause health problems including genital warts and cancers. But there are vaccines that can stop these health problems from happening.

You can get HPV by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has the virus. It is most commonly spread during vaginal or anal sex. HPV can be passed even when an infected person has no signs or symptoms. You can develop symptoms years after you have sex with someone who is infected, making it hard to know when you first became infected.

There is no test to find out a person’s “HPV status.” Also, there is no approved HPV test to find HPV in the mouth or throat.

However, there are HPV tests that can be used to screen for cervical cancer. These tests are recommended for screening only in women aged 30 years and older. They are not recommended to screen men, adolescents, or women under the age of 30 years.

Most people with HPV do not know they are infected and never develop symptoms or health problems from it. Some people find out that they have HPV when they get genital warts. Women may find out they have HPV when they get an abnormal Pap test result (during cervical cancer screening). Others may only find out once they’ve developed more serious problems from HPV, such as cancers.

There is no treatment for the virus itself. However, there are treatments for the health problems that HPV can cause:

Genital warts can be treated by you or your physician. If left untreated, genital warts may go away, stay the same, or grow in size or number.

Cervical precancer can be treated. Women who get routine Pap tests and follow up as needed can identify problems before cancer develops. Prevention is always better than treatment.

Other HPV-related cancers are also more treatable when diagnosed and treated early.

Syphilis

Syphilis is an STD that can cause long-term complications if not treated correctly. Symptoms in adults are divided into stages. These stages are primary, secondary, latent, and late syphilis.

You can get syphilis by direct contact with a syphilis sore during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Sores can be found on the penis, vagina, anus, in the rectum, or on the lips and in the mouth. Syphilis can also be spread from an infected mother to her unborn baby.

Syphilis has been called “the great imitator” because it has so many possible symptoms, many of which look like symptoms from other diseases. The painless syphilis sore that you get after you are first infected can be mistaken for an ingrown hair, zipper cut, or other seemingly harmless bump. The non-itchy body rash that develops during the second stage of syphilis can show up on the palms of your hands and soles of your feet, all over your body, or in just a few places. Syphilis can also affect the eye and can lead to permanent blindness. This is called ocular syphilis. You could also be infected with syphilis and have very mild symptoms or none at all.

Syphilis can be cured with the right antibiotics from your health care provider. However, treatment will not undo any damage that the infection has already caused.

How You Can Protect Yourself Against STDs

The surest way to protect yourself against STDs is to not have sex (practice “abstinence”). That means not having any vaginal, anal, or oral sex. There are many things to consider before having sex, and it’s okay to say no if you don’t want to have sex.

If you do decide to have sex, you and your partner should get tested beforehand and make sure that you and your partner use a condom—every time you have oral, anal, or vaginal sex, from start to finish. Know where to get condoms and how to use them correctly. It’s not safe to stop using condoms unless you’ve both been tested, know your status, and are in a mutually monogamous relationship.

Mutual monogamy means that you and your partner both agree to only have sexual contact with each other. This can help protect against STDs, as long as you’ve both been tested and know you’re STD-free.

Before you have sex, talk with your partner about how you will prevent STDs and pregnancy. If you think you’re ready to have sex, you need to be ready to protect your body and your future. You should also talk to your partner ahead of time about what you will and will not do sexually. Your partner should always respect your right to say no to anything that doesn’t feel right.

Make sure you get the health care you need. Ask a doctor or nurse about STD testing and about vaccines against HPV and hepatitis B.

Girls and young women may have extra needs to protect their reproductive health. Talk to your doctor or nurse about regular cervical cancer screening and chlamydia testing.

Avoid using alcohol and drugs. If you use alcohol and drugs, you are more likely to take risks—like not using a condom or having sex with someone you normally wouldn’t have sex with.

Many STDs don’t cause any symptoms that you would notice, so the only way to know for sure if you have an STD is to get tested. You can get an STD from having sex with someone who has no symptoms. Just like you, that person might not even know he or she has an STD.

There are places that offer confidential and free STD tests. This means that no one has to find out you’ve been tested. Visit GetTested to find an STD testing location near you. If you find out that you have an STD, it’s important to seek treatment—since some STDs can be fatal if left untreated. Although certain STDs (like herpes and HIV) aren’t curable, a doctor can prescribe medicine to treat the symptoms. If you are living with an STD, it’s important to tell your partner before you have sex. Although it may be uncomfortable to talk about your STD, open and honest conversation can help your partner make informed decisions to protect his or her health.

Unintended Pregnancy

Seven in ten pregnancies among single women between the ages of eighteen and twenty-nine are unplanned[1] As with STDs, the surest way to avoid unintended pregnancy is abstinence, since no birth control method is 100 percent reliable. However, if you are sexually active, it’s important to protect yourself and your partner from pregnancy and HIV and other STDs. Birth control (such as the pill, patch, ring, implant, shot, or an IUD) provides highly effective pregnancy prevention, but it doesn’t protect you from HIV and other STDs. Condoms can reduce the risk to both of you for pregnancy and most STDs, including HIV. Even if you or your partner is using another type of birth control, agree to use a condom every time you have sex.

His condom + her hormonal birth control or IUD = DOUBLE PROTECTION.

If a condom breaks or you have unprotected sexual intercourse, it’s possible to take an emergency contraceptive pill (ECP)—sometimes called a “morning-after pill”—which may prevent a pregnancy from occurring. ECPs generally contain a higher dose of the same hormones found in regular oral contraceptive pills, and they are most effective when used shortly after intercourse (not the next morning, as the name suggests). It’s important to note that ECPs are not abortion pills, and they do nothing to either prevent or cure STDs.

Visit your campus health center or talk to your doctor to get more information about birth control, condoms, and other reproductive and sexual health issues.

Sexual Assault

Sexual assault is any type of sexual activity that a person doesn’t agree to. It can include touching that is not okay; putting something into the vagina; sexual intercourse; rape; and attempted rape. Sexual assault happens on college campuses as well as in communities. One in five women has been sexually assaulted while in college and 80 percent of female rape victims experience their first rape before the age of twenty-five. The following statistics show that sexual assaults usually aren’t random acts of violence carried out by strangers: [2]

Approximately 4 out of 5 rapes are committed by someone known to the victim.

82 percent of sexual assaults are perpetrated by a non-stranger.

47 percent of rapists are a friend or an acquaintance.

25 percent are an intimate partner.

5 percent are a relative.

Date Rape Drugs

One of the great things about being in college is having the chance to meet and get to know so many new people. Protecting yourself against sexual assaults doesn’t mean you have to sacrifice exciting social opportunities. It just means being informed about risks and taking common-sense steps to protect yourself.

One very real risk on college campuses—and elsewhere—is the use of date rape drugs to assist sexual assaults. Date rape drugs are powerful and dangerous drugs that can be slipped into your drink when you are not looking. The drugs often have no color, smell, or taste, so you can’t tell if you are being drugged. The drugs can make you become weak and confused—or even pass out—so that you are unable to refuse sex or defend yourself. If you are drugged, you might not remember what happened while you were drugged. Date rape drugs are used on both women and men.

The three most common date rape drugs are Rohypnol, GHB, and Ketamine:

Rohypnol comes as a pill that dissolves in liquids. Some are small, round, and white. Newer pills are oval and green-gray in color. When slipped into a drink, a dye in these new pills makes clear liquids turn bright blue and dark drinks turn cloudy. But this color change might be hard to see in a dark drink, like cola or dark beer, or in a dark room. Also, the pills with no dye are still available. The pills may be ground up into a powder.

GHB has a few forms: a liquid with no odor or color, white powder, and pill. It might give your drink a slightly salty taste. Mixing it with a sweet drink, such as fruit juice, can mask the salty taste.

Ketamine comes as a liquid and a white powder.

These drugs also are known as “club drugs” because they tend to be used at dance clubs, concerts, and “raves.” The term “date rape” is widely used to describe sexual crimes involving these drugs, but most experts prefer the term “drug-facilitated sexual assault.” These drugs are also used to help people commit other crimes, like robbery and physical assault. The term “date rape” can be misleading because the person who commits the crime might not be dating the victim. Rather, it could be an acquaintance or stranger.

Alcohol and Other Drugs

Alcohol is also a drug that’s commonly used to help commit sexual assault. Be aware of the risks you take by drinking alcohol at parties or in other social situations. When a person drinks too much alcohol,

It’s harder to think clearly.

It’s harder to set limits and make good choices.

It’s harder to tell when a situation could be dangerous.

It’s harder to say “no” to sexual advances.

It’s harder to fight back if a sexual assault occurs.

It’s possible to black out and to have memory loss.

The club drug “ecstasy” (MDMA) has been used to commit sexual assault. It can be slipped into someone’s drink without the person’s knowledge. Also, a person who willingly takes ecstasy is at greater risk of sexual assault. Ecstasy can make a person feel “lovey-dovey” toward others. As with alcohol, it also can lower a person’s ability to give reasoned consent. Once under the drug’s influence, a person is less able to sense danger or to resist a sexual assault.

Even if a victim of sexual assault drank alcohol or willingly took drugs, the victim is not at fault for being assaulted. You cannot “ask for it” or cause it to happen. Still, it’s important to be vigilant and take common-sense steps to avoid putting yourself at risk. Take the following steps to protect yourself from becoming a victim:

Don’t accept drinks from other people.

Open containers yourself.

Keep your drink with you at all times, even when you go to the bathroom.

Don’t share drinks.

Don’t drink from punch bowls or other common, open containers. They may already have drugs in them.

If someone offers to get you a drink from a bar or at a party, go with the person to order your drink. Watch the drink being poured and carry it yourself.

Don’t drink anything that tastes or smells strange. Remember, GHB sometimes tastes salty.

Have a nondrinking friend with you to make sure nothing happens.

If you realize you left your drink unattended, pour it out.

If you feel drunk and haven’t drunk any alcohol—or, if you feel like the effects of drinking alcohol are stronger than usual—get help right away.

How and Where to Get Help

Take the following steps if you or someone you know has been raped, or you think you might have been drugged and raped:

Get medical care right away. Call 911 or have a trusted friend take you to a hospital emergency room. Don’t urinate, douche, bathe, brush your teeth, wash your hands, change clothes, or eat or drink before you go. These things may give evidence of the rape. The hospital will use a “rape kit” to collect evidence.

Call the police from the hospital. Tell the police exactly what you remember. Be honest about all your activities. Remember, nothing you did—including drinking alcohol or doing drugs—can justify rape.

Ask the hospital to take a urine (pee) sample that can be used to test for date rape drugs. The drugs leave your system quickly. Rohypnol stays in the body for several hours and can be detected in the urine up to 72 hours after taking it. GHB leaves the body in 12 hours. Don’t urinate before going to the hospital.

Don’t pick up or clean up where you think the assault might have occurred. There could be evidence left behind—such as on a drinking glass or bed sheets.

Get counseling and treatment. Feelings of shame, guilt, fear, and shock are normal. A counselor can help you work through these emotions and begin the healing process. Calling a crisis center or a hotline is a good place to start. One national hotline is the National Sexual Assault Hotline at 800-656-HOPE.

Activity: Sexual Assault on College Campuses

Objective

Identify risks of sexual assault, including date rape, and where to get help

Directions

Watch the following video, in which Emma Sulkowicz, a student at Columbia College, describes the experience and aftermath of being raped by a fellow student—who remains on campus.

https://youtu.be/KDG67KzDUbQ

Click on the following link, and read the followup article, which describes Emma’s response to the way the university handled her case: “Students Bring out Mattresses in Huge ‘Carry That Weight’ Protest Against Sexual Assault.”

Write a short essay (2–3 pages) in which you respond to the following questions:

What were the results of Emma’s “Carry That Weight” protest?

Do you think it was an effective strategy for dealing with the problem of sexual assault at Columbia and other colleges? Why or why not?

Who has the responsibility for addressing this problem? (College administrators? The police? All students? Female or male students? Someone else?)  Which approach do you think would have the greatest impact? (Education? Activism? Policy change? Something else?)

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

"How You Can Prevent Pregnancy." It's Your Sex Life. MTV. Web. 11 Mar. 2016.

"The Offenders." RAINN | Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network. Web. 11 Mar. 2016.

CC licensed content, Original

Sexual Health. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

CC licensed content, Shared previously

Love. Authored by: Danielle Moler. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/vocabulicious/4211512011/. License: CC BY: Attribution

Laura, Laura, Laura could you get me home tonight? . Authored by: Sarah Ross. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/23680544@N07/4300358703/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

All rights reserved content

My Rapist Is Still on Campus: Sexual Assault in the Ivy League | TIME. Provided by: TIME. Located at: https://youtu.be/KDG67KzDUbQ. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

Public domain content

Sexual Health. Provided by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/sexualhealth/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Date Rape Drugs Fact Sheet. Provided by: Office on Women's Health. Located at: http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/date-rape-drugs.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Chlamydia - CDC Fact Sheet. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/chlamydia/stdfact-chlamydia.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Genital Herpes - CDC Fact Sheet. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/herpes/stdfact-herpes.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Gonorrhea - CDC Fact Sheet. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/gonorrhea/stdfact-gonorrhea.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

HIV Basics. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/index.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Genital HPV Infection - Fact Sheet. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/stdfact-hpv.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Syphilis - CDC Fact Sheet. Provided by: CDC. Located at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/syphilis/stdfact-syphilis.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

HIV/AIDS. Provided by: U.S. National Library of Medicine. Located at: https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/hivaids.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

45

Safety

You don’t need to know the whole alphabet of safety. The a, b, c of it will save you if you follow it: Always Be Careful. —Colorado School of Mines Magazine, Golden, Colorado, August 1918

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define safety consciousness

Describe strategies for staying safe on campus and elsewhere

Identify resources for learning about safety in college

Safety Consciousness on Campus and in College

College and university campuses tend to have a special feel—so special that when you are on campus you may feel you are fully apart from the wider world around you. But the reality is that any campus is subject to the same influences—indeed, crimes—as the towns and cities that flank the campus. And so it is important to be aware of your surroundings, the people near you, and the goings on in your physical spaces and in your virtual spaces at all times.

In this topic, we explore college safety concerns, and share tips and resources to help ensure that you are always safe, protected, and no more than a phone call away from help if you need it.

Safety Consciousness

Safety consciousness is a term describing your awareness of hazards, and your alertness to potential danger. In order to have safety consciousness, you must value safety no matter where you are or what time of day it is.

Your college or university must also be safety conscious—not only by choice, but also by law. In 1990, Congress enacted the Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act, which required all schools that receive federal student aid to share information about crime on and around their campuses. The act is now generally just referred to as the Clery Act, in memory of Jeanne Clery, a student killed in her dorm room in 1986.

What does the Clery Act require your college to do? If your college is receiving federal student aid, here are the major legal requirements it must comply with:

Have emergency notification and evacuation procedures for alerting the campus community about significant emergencies or dangerous situations. Disclose your policies and procedures in the annual security report.

Issue timely warnings to alert the campus community about crimes that pose a serious or continuing threat to safety. Disclose your policy in the annual security report.

Keep a crime log that records, by date reported, all crimes reported to the campus police or security department.

Keep a fire log that records by date reported, all fires in on-campus student housing facilities.

Collect crime reports from campus security authorities within the institution.

Request crime statistics from local law enforcement in the jurisdiction where the institution is located.

Submit crime and fire statistics to the Department of Education via a Web-based data collection.

Have missing-student notification procedures to aid in determining if a student is missing, and in notifying law enforcement personnel. Disclose your policy and procedures in the annual security report.

Publish an annual security report containing campus security policy disclosures and crime statistics for the previous three years.

Publish an annual fire-safety report containing policy disclosures and fire statistics for on-campus student housing facilities for the previous three years.

This valuable set of requirements is important for every student to be aware of. It is readily available to you and your family. You don’t need to be a student to access this information about any school.

Indicators of School Crime and Safety

The following video, from the National Center for Education Statistics, gives statistical details about safety and crimes on campus. You can visit the organization’s Web site to view the full related report and learn more about crime and safety in America’s schools and colleges.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bEeoTlF1AQU

Strategies for Staying Safe on Campus and Beyond

One of the best strategies for staying safe on campus and beyond is to ask questions. Take the initiative to learn more about your college surroundings, the community culture, and safety precautions you’d be well advised to implement.[1] Below are some questions you can ask to open up important conversations about campus and community safety.

| QUESTIONS | CONCERNS[2]

1
How is the college creating a safe environment for all faculty, staff, and students?
Your concern about a safe environment on campus and in the surrounding communities is a consumer concern as much as a learner concern. As you and your college make safety a shared priority, awareness builds and safety measures expand, which creates a safer space for you to learn in. Measures can be extensive. Ask for specifics.

2 | What communication procedures are in place for emergencies? | Many colleges and universities send emergency phone messages, email messages and text messages to all students, staff, faculty, administrators, board of trustees members, etc. Institutions may have sirens and alarms. Signage on campus may be used for alerts, along with other measures.
3 | Can you tell me about campus police and security personnel, and how they coordinate with local police? | Your campus should have a full contingent of campus police and security personnel who coordinate closely with local police as and when needed.
4 | How are sexual assaults on campus handled? | Does the college handle investigations or do local authorities handle investigations? Who should you complain to if you have a problem? What confidentialities are in place?
5 | How do students learn about safety on campus? | Many institutions provide students with classes that help them learn how to intervene as bystanders in altercations. Some courses give students advice about other safety measures. You can encourage your institution to offer workshops or other learning opportunities if it doesn’t already offer them.
6 | What measures are in place for protecting students who live off-campus? | Some schools help students find safe housing off campus. Your school might have an off-campus housing department.
7 | To what degree do alcohol and drug abuse pose issues on campus? How are violations handled? | One of the best sources of information about drugs and alcohol on campus is fellow students. You can find information about violations in the annual security report.

Tips for Staying Safe

Walking, driving, traveling:

Travel with a buddy.

Use the campus escort service at night, especially if you are alone.

If you live off-campus, call someone when you get home.

Keep moving; don’t linger (especially at night).

Carry pepper spray or pepper gel.

Keep a personal alarm (for example, on a keychain).

If you have a car, lock it.

At home:

Keep your windows and doors locked.

Keep the main door to your home, hall or apartment building locked at all times.

Don’t let anyone into your dwelling that you don’t know.

On campus:

Keep a close eye on your belongings when you’re in a library.

Get a locking device for your laptop.

Participate in a college safety program.

Be cautious, not paranoid.

Anywhere:

Make sure your phone is charged.

Know the phone number for Campus Safety.

Put emergency numbers in your cell phone.

Carry emergency cash.

Speak up if you notice something going on.

For a truly comprehensive list of tips for staying safe on and off campus, visit Campus Crime Prevention Personal Safety Tips from Fort Hayes State University.

Also, don’t hesitate to take advantage of campus and community resources, which may include any of the following:

Web sites, offices, organizations, and individuals with safety information

Campus police and campus security

Local police

Sexual assault and relationship-violence services

Shuttle services

Escort services

Counseling programs

Mental health programs

Substance abuse programs

Local health care centers

Campus abuse hotlines

The following video focuses on how to stay safe when on campus. The interviewee, David Nance, sheds light on overlooked areas and situations where students are vulnerable.

https://youtu.be/iijKh6l8Ssw

Safety Apps

One of the very best safety measures you can take at any time is to keep emergency numbers handy, either on your phone or in your wallet or backpack or a place where you can easily access them. You may also find it helpful to have a safety app on your mobile device. Consider downloading any of the following free apps.

MOBILE DEVICE SAFETY APPLICATIONS

iTunes logo: bsafeyou | bSafe is a personal safety app designed to keep you and your friends safer 24/7. It has features for everyday safety and real emergencies. You can set up your own personal social safety network.

Logo: interlocking C and 6 circles, with U at top left
Circle of 6 U is built specifically for colleges and schools, connecting students to each other and to critical resources on specific campuses. The tool lets you choose up to 6 trusted friends to add to your circle, so that if you get into an uncomfortable or risky situation, with two taps you send your circle a pre-programmed SMS alert message indicating your exact location.

Logo: silver eye with "on watch" beneath it | OnWatchOnCampus: With just 2 taps, your friends and emergency first responders are alerted to your GPS location and that you need help.
Logo: MyForce | MyForce: This tool offers users instant notifications, monitoring agents, nationwide coverage and fast emergency response. When an alert is sent, the 24/7 safety agents track your whereabouts and pinpoint your exact location. They listen in and assess the details.

 iTunes logo: green circle with "okay" hand signal icon, yellow circle with GPS locator icon, red circle with telephone icon
React Mobile: Users can quickly send out a widespread emergency alert without having to access and unlock their phone. You choose which contacts you would like to share your location with. Then your contact list can be sent an email and a text message with a link to your GPS location. You can also send an “SOS Help Me” message to an unlimited number of buddies.

 iTunes logo: white balloon on blue background, with white heart inside it | Watch Over Me: This tool turns your mobile device into emergency tool with just a shake, even if your phone is locked. The shake turns on your phone’s alarm and video camera, and sends an alert to your emergency contacts.

Resources for Learning About Safety in College

Your personal safety both on- and off-campus, and the safety of your family and friends, is a treasure. The more you know about safety, perhaps the more safe you can be and the more safe you can help others be. Here are many resources to help you learn more about safety.

The Campus Safety and Security Data Analysis Cutting Tool (click on Get data for one institution/campus)

Frequently asked questions about the Best Colleges rankings and crime reports

The Handbook for Campus Safety and Security Reporting and HandbookQuestions@ed.gov

Suggested Resources regarding campus sexual assault training and prevention efforts

Emergency Management for Higher Education (EMHE) grant program

Action Guide for Emergency Management at Institutions of Higher Education

College Drinking Prevention

Travel Warnings and Consular Information Sheets for student considering traveling abroad

Sexual Assaults

Not Alone: for students and universities re sexual assault on campus

SAFER (Students Active For Ending Rape)

How to research and discuss sexual assault on college campuses

National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: working to prevent and respond to violence against members of the LGBTQ community

RAINN (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network)

1in6: for men who have been victims of sexual abuse and assault

Clery Center Help for Victims

Referrals for Sexual Assault and Rape by State

Culture of Respect: immediate help and legal aid for students, friends and family members who have been victims of on-campus sexual assault

Joyful Heart Foundation: helping sexual violence survivors reclaim their lives

Male Survivor

National Alliance to End Sexual Violence

National Center for Victims of Crime

National Center on Domestic and Sexual Violence

National Sexual Violence Resource Center

Stalking Resource Center

VRLC (Victim Rights Law Center)

Activity: Personal Security

Objective

Describe strategies for staying safe on campus and elsewhere

Directions

Make a list of 3–5 campus safety issues you’re personally concerned about. This might include anything from worrying about parking lot security and car break-ins to date rape or hate crime.

Visit your college Web site, and search for safety and security information that’s relevant to your concerns. Record the name and contact information for each resource you find and any procedures you learn about. For example, if you’re worried about your backpack or computer getting stolen while you’re at school, find out what should you do if it happens. Who should you call, and what might you need to provide? If you come across useful prevention measures (e.g., “record the serial number of your computer somewhere else, so you’ll have it for the theft report”), write those down, too.

For the assignment, use the information you found to create your own Safety Directory, as below.

Safety Issue | Resource | Phone Number | Address/Web Site | Important Information

Make sure the information is also stored somewhere in your computer and phone so you can find and use it later. (Add it to your contacts, for instance.)

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

Jones, Ruth. "College Crimes & Sexual Assault." Affordable Colleges Online. 2016. Web. 22 Feb 2016.

Boyington, Briana. "10 Questions Every Parent, Student Should Ask About Campus Safety." U.S. News and World Report Education. 9 Sept 2014. Web. 22 Feb 2016.

CC licensed content, Original

Campus Security. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

CC licensed content, Shared previously

Campus Security. Authored by: Hector Alejandro. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/hectoralejandro/3839966929/sizes/l. License: CC BY: Attribution

All rights reserved content

Campus Safety - Safety Tips for College Students. Authored by: personalsafetyexpert. Located at: https://youtu.be/iijKh6l8Ssw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Public domain content

Campus Safety. Provided by: US Department of Education. Located at: http://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/safety/campus.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Campus Security. Provided by: U.S. Department of Education. Located at: http://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/safety/campus.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

10

Financial Management

46

Personal Finance

The cost of college should never discourage anyone from going after a valuable degree. –Arne Duncan, former United States Secretary of Education

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify sources of major and minor expenses in your life

Identify sources of income in your life

Set financial goals and priorities for yourself

College students often have money concerns, such as affording college while still paying other bills. These concerns can affect their academic success. For instance, money problems are stressful and can prevent students from concentrating on their studies. Or, if students have a lot of personal expenses, they may try to work more hours to cover costs of living, leaving them with less time to study. Worse yet, some money problems, such as extreme debt, may cause students to drop out of college entirely.

Analyzing one’s financial responsibilities and planning ways to pay for expenses can help reduce stress. In this section, we identify common personal expenses, sources of income, and explore steps for creating financial goals.

Expenses

College students are diverse and may be in different stages of their lives. For example, some students may have just graduated from high school, while other may be older and have families. While these differences will have an impact on financial responsibilities, there are certain financial obligations most college students have to pay for. Some are more expensive, like tuition, while others are less pricey but still important, like books and food. The following list describes basic expenses associated with college:

Tuition: This includes the price for attending an institution. Students pay relatively more or less for this based on where they’re going to school and how many credits they’re taking.

Room and board: These are essentially “food and shelter” costs. Many college students live in a dorm and eat their meals on campus. Students who live off campus will have to pay for comparable things, like renting an apartment and buying their own groceries.

Books and supplies: These include books for classes and supplies like notebooks, writing utensils, and calculators. Textbooks are often very expensive, so many students try to find used textbooks for sale.

Personal needs: Regardless of where students live, they typically need money for things like laundry, cell phones, computers, and going out with friends. This expense can vary a lot depending on personal preferences. For instance, some students may prefer to make their own meals while others may prioritize eating out.

Transportation: Students who commute by car or need to drive to off-campus activities will need to consider the price of car insurance, maintenance, and gas. Students who attend college in more urban areas may also have public-transportation expenses.

What types of expenses do you think you might face as a college student? The following video will help you review the types of college expenses and examine particular costs that are common for both four-year and two-year institutions.

https://youtu.be/lbp2LoE1WdU

Activity: Financial Wellness

Objectives

Identify sources of major and minor expenses in your life

Identify sources of income in your life

Set financial goals and priorities for yourself

Directions

Identify two larger college expenses and two smaller college expenses that you are responsible for. For example, tuition might be a large college expense while notebooks and folders might be smaller ones.

Describe any sources of income you currently have to cover these expenses.

Explain three financial goals you have for covering your college expenses. For example, you might want to consider work study or taking out another loan.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting assignments.

Sources of Income

Paying for college is a big challenge, but the following financial resources can help:

Jobs: Full-time students may find part-time work on or off campus, while part-time students may work during the day and then take evening classes. Students can also talk to their guidance counselor and financial resource department about work-study opportunities, which allow students to receive money for completing work related to their studies.

Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA): This free application, available here, requires students to answer questions regarding their background and personal finances in order to find out how much financial assistance they might qualify for. The financial assistance comes in the form of government loans, grants, work study, or scholarships. Financial aid will be discussed in greater detail later in this module.

Loans: Students can apply for federal loans or personal loans through banks. Loans accrue interest and eventually need to be paid back.

Grants and scholarships: Students can apply for grants and scholarships through their institutions, local businesses, or online organizations. Scholarships may be awarded on the basis of merit (grades, achievements, volunteer work, etc.), financial need (economic status), or some other set of criteria (achievements and ethnic background, for instance). Unlike loans, grants and scholarships don’t need to be paid back.

Setting Financial Goals

Setting financial goals for yourself is one of the best ways to track and manage your expenses. The following strategies can help:

Create SMART goals: SMART stands for specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely. These kinds of goals are more manageable and can help you reach your final target more easily. For example, instead of setting a broad, vague goal of “paying for college,” you might set a goal of paying off your two college loans five years after you graduate. This more specific, measurable goal can help you keep track of your progress and whether you need to make changes to reach it.

Monitor your spending: Try keeping track of what you spend money on during a one-month period. This can help you see where your money goes and where you may be able to save.

Create a budget: Based on what you discovered after monitoring your spending, create a monthly budget you can stick to. While some expenses, such as food and transportation, are necessary, you may find that you can save money on both by riding a bike (instead of driving) to school and eating out in restaurants less.

Consider working: Some students have full-time jobs while attending college, whereas others may not have a lot of time to work if they’re taking a full academic load. Depending on your circumstances, it’s worth looking into employment opportunities both on and off campus. Even if you feel like only a couple hours of work per week are possible, it could help you pay for something like books so you have one less thing to worry about when you graduate.

Choose loans wisely: Many college students need some sort of financial support through loans. While loans are a good way to pay for tuition up front if you don’t have the money, remember that they accrue interest until you pay them off. That means that you will end up paying back more—in some cases, thousands of dollars more—than you initially borrowed. Make sure you investigate and apply for as many scholarships and grants as you can (since they won’t need to be repaid), and shop around for the loans with the lowest interest rates and best repayment plans. Check with the financial aid office on your college campus—they can provide additional help.

These are only some steps you can take for creating college financial goals, but it’s important to find the right ones for you.

Now that we’ve learned about different types of income (scholarships, work, loans) and different costs (tuition, class supplies, costs of living) students may have, take a moment to reflect on your own financial situation. Can you think of any ways to improve your spending habits?

Take a look at the following activity, in which we’ll look at three college students and the financial decisions they made in order to be able to afford their education.

Click here for a text-only version of the activity.

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47

Financial Aid

Studying is something I really love doing, and I just hope to have enough money for tuition. —Alexandra Kosteniuk, Russian chess Grandmaster

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Determine the costs of attending the school of your choice

Identify the potential sources of financial assistance available, including subsidized and unsubsidized loans, grants, scholarships, and work study

Identify strategies for applying for financial aid and scholarships

The Cost of College

Usually, when people hear the words college costs, they think of tuition and room and board. Unfortunately, those costs are only part of the picture. The real cost of college includes a much wider list of expenses, such as the ones below:

Tuition: Tuition includes the cost of attending classes. This varies by school and also depends on how many courses and credits a student takes.

Other institution-related fees: Most colleges also charge quarterly or annual fees that cover student services such as the library, athletics, and campus maintenance.

Room and board: Room and board fees include the cost for housing and meals (usually on campus). These vary by school and region.

Books and supplies: Most students need to purchase books during their college career. They also need to pay for basic school supplies and equipment (backpack, folders, pens, etc.). Some of these, such as graphing calculators and computers, can be expensive. While they may not be required to purchase them, many students find that it’s more convenient and efficient to own their own laptop or computer so they don’t have to borrow one or work around library hours.

Living and transportation: Students living off campus and not living at home will have to think about paying rent. Whether you live off campus or in a dorm room, you might want to purchase household items like furniture and kitchen appliances. Students may also have vehicles that need gas and routine maintenance, or they may need to purchase passes for public transportation.

Personal needs and entertainment: Students will need to pay for personal items such as clothing, toiletries, etc. They will also probably want to spend money on recreational activities, going out with friends, and so on.

College students are often aware of room and board expenses but may forget to factor in the cost of necessities like furniture, kitchen appliances, and other household items for their dorm or apartment.

Financial Resources

When it comes to covering all the costs of college, depending on how much money you’ve saved beforehand, you will probably want to investigate one or more of the following options:

Student loans: Students can apply for subsidized or unsubsidized loans through the government. Your college determines the amount of each type of loan offered to you. Subsidized loans allow you to defer payment until six months after your graduate, while unsubsidized loans still accrue interest while you’re in college. Students may also obtain private loans through their banks. However, these types of loans are typically subject to more interest. Check the U.S. Department of Education site for information on applying for different types of loans.

Grants and scholarships: Grants and scholarships do not need to be paid back. Students can look for grant and scholarship options through the government, their schools, and their communities. Scholarships may be awarded on the basis of financial need, academic merit, or talent. You can visit your guidance counselor or financial aid office for listings of available grants and scholarships, or conduct independent research at sites like College Scholarships.

Jobs: There are a number of paid work opportunities for college students, ranging from work study to on- and off-campus jobs and internships. If you have the time to commit to working while you’re in school, it’s worth investigating all of them. The topic of student job opportunities is covered at length later in this module.

Activity: Personal Spending Habits

Objectives

Determine the costs of attending the school of your choice

Identify the potential sources of financial assistance available, including subsidized and unsubsidized loans, grants, scholarships, and work study

Directions

Identify the college expenses you will need to cover.

Research the college you attend and identify any additional costs that may be unique to that institution.

Review resources that may help you pay for college in the “Financial Resources” section.

Fill out the following table. Include at least four items under “College Expense.”

College Expense | Estimated Cost | Payment Plan Ideas

Applying for Financial Aid

Applying for financial aid requires planning and organization. Below are steps you can take to increase your chances of getting help paying for college.

Complete the Free Application for Financial Student Aid (FAFSA)

This free application asks students questions about their background, personal finances, and college, and provides information about what loans, work study, and other types of aid they might be eligible for. You may be unaware of factors that affect how much financial assistance you are eligible for, such as changes to your parents’ income or your job status, or having a sibling start college. This is why it is important to fill out a new FAFSA application annually.

Make Sure the Information Is Accurate

Although it can be a chore to track down exact amounts (and it is so much easier to estimate things like your parents’ or your income), failure to provide accurate numbers can mean that you may not qualify for all the financial assistance you’re actually eligible for. Before you fill out the FAFSA form, be sure you have collected and have handy all the important information you’ll need. This includes your (and your parents’) tax forms, social security number, and income statements. The U.S. Department of Education’s Site for Federal Student Aid has more tips on how to effectively fill out your application.

Ask Your High School and College

If you’re still in high school or you recently graduated, ask your guidance counselor about grants and scholarships you could apply for. Your college will also be a good resource, since most institutions have their own scholarships and awards that are available to their students.

Ask Your Community

Check to see if your employer, place of worship, clubs, or volunteer organizations have any grant or scholarship opportunities. Although these sources may not offer as much as federal loans or college scholarships, they may help you cover the costs of books and/or supplies.

Check Due Dates

Whether you’re filling out the Free Application for Student Aid (FAFSA) or applying for scholarships, most organizations will have deadlines which you must meet—they are not flexible dates. These deadlines help ensure that if you are eligible, you will receive your financial assistance in time for the upcoming school year. If other people are helping you with your application—for example, teachers writing letters of recommendation for you—be sure to inform them of the deadlines and give them plenty of notice. The more time you give those helping you, the more time they’ll have to write good recommendations.

Write Strong Essays

Many scholarship applications will have an essay component. You can assume that the other students applying for a particular scholarship also meet the basic requirements (a certain GPA or above, certain demographic criteria, etc.), so often it isn’t enough to just have good grades or be “eligible” for a scholarship: the essay can be what really sets you apart. When you write application essays, make sure you have the time to write multiple drafts. You should also have family, friends, or teachers provide feedback as you go through revisions.

As the following video shows, regardless of your background, which college you’re attending, or your time commitment, there are numerous financial aid opportunities for you to consider:

https://youtu.be/K8JuaYVJ_LE

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48

Working

Internships and work experience are a proven method of getting your foot in the door. —Duane Strauss, TV presenter and producer

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify typical job categories for college students

Describe the pros and cons of working while in college

Identify employment resources on campus and in the community

In this section, we will learn about the types of jobs college students have, the advantages and disadvantages of working during college, and resources for finding jobs.

Typical College-Student Jobs

College students can take on a range of jobs while in school, depending on their availability, experience, talents, and financial needs. For example, if a student is taking a lot of course credits in order to graduate early, he or she may not have time to work more than five hours a week. Let’s look at the types of jobs college students might have.

Work-Study Programs

Work study is part-time work that’s awarded to students as part of a financial aid package. Students can often find work study related to their areas of interest. For example, someone studying biology might have a work-study job taking inventory of lab supplies on campus. One drawback to work study is that because it’s based on financial need, students who have adequate resources for college but who want to earn extra money may not qualify.

Campus Jobs

Not all campus jobs are work-study related. Students may be able to ask their institution’s human resource director or individual campus departments to see if other work is available. For example, the office of the registrar might need help filing papers. It may also be possible to apply to become a resident adviser (RA) and get free room and board in exchange for living on campus and serving as a role model for students. Some students may prefer to seek work off-campus, instead, since they may be able to work more hours and avoid competing with other students for on-campus jobs.

Off-Campus Jobs

Students can certainly explore job opportunities in their communities. Such work might be related to a student’s field of interest—for example, a student interested in journalism might get a job writing ads for a local publication. Or it might be worth seeking a job that’s unrelated to school simply because it offers the most hours and pay. On the other hand, some may prefer on-campus jobs because their work supervisors are more respectful of their academic commitments and the need for flexible hours.

Internships

Similar to work-study opportunities, internships are usually related to a student’s area of interest. For example, a marketing student may get an internship working with a marketing director and contributing to the company’s social media campaigns. While internships can provide invaluable work experience, unfortunately it can be hard to find ones that are paid.

Summer Jobs

Students who are concerned about not having enough time to work during college may wait and find part-time or full-time work during summer break. Such opportunities can be found through one’s guidance counselor, financial aid department, community members, or even online. One disadvantage of summer jobs is that they don’t last very long, which means that it won’t feel like much of a break or “vacation” if you’re trying to earn a significant amount of money during that time.

Activity: What Type of College Job Might Be Right for You?

Objective

Identify jobs that college students frequently hold

Assess what type of job might best fit your current needs and situation

Directions

Schedule a brief interview with a college representative from an institution who works with students to help them find jobs. This representative might be from the career center, counseling services, or the human resource department.

Considering your field(s) of interest, personal skills, and lifestyle, ask the college representative the following questions:

What types of jobs would you recommend based on my interests and skills as me? Why?

What types of jobs would be most compatible with my availability/schedule?

What are the pros and cons of these jobs?

After the interview, write a short paper (1–2 pages) summarizing what you found out. Do any of the jobs the college representative mentioned sound like opportunities you might pursue? Why or why not?

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting this assignment.

Working During College: Pros and Cons

Finding a job as a college student can be both exciting and stressful, and it’s not for everyone. For example, students who have already received tuition assistance through scholarships and have full course loads may not have enough time for work. Let’s look more closely at the advantages and disadvantages of working during college:

Pros

Earning extra money: One of the most obvious benefits to working during college  is earning extra money for college expenses.

Enhanced budgeting skills: Students with the responsibility of working may learn to budget their money better since they have to earn it themselves.

Enhanced time-management skills: Students who have to juggle classes, work, and possibly other activities such as clubs or sports may actually excel in classes because they learn how to effectively management their time.

Networking: Students may not only get work experience in a field related to their interests, but they may also meet people who can help them later when they’re ready for a career. For example, a law student who gets a job as a file clerk with a law firm may be able to ask the lawyers at the firm for recommendations when she applies to law school.

Cons

Lack of time-management skills: Though working during college can help students build time-management skills, those who aren’t used to balancing activities may struggle. For example, a student who heads to college straight from high school without any prior job experience (or with few extracurricular activities during high school) may have trouble meeting multiple academic and job obligations and commitments.

Lack of free time: If students take on a lot of work hours while in college, they may not have time for other activities or opportunities, such as joining clubs related to their interests or finding volunteer work or internships that might help them discover career opportunities and connections. These “extras” are actually significant résumé items that can make students more employable after college.

Deciding whether or not to work while you’re in college is obviously personal decision that involves your own comfort level and situation. Some students may prefer to put off looking for a job until after the first semester of college, so they can better gauge their work load and schedule, while others may prefer to avoid working altogether. For some, the question isn’t “Should I or shouldn’t I get a job?” but “How much should I work?” In other words, the challenge is to strike the right balance between schoolwork, social activities, and earning money.

The following video shares one student’s experience with the pros and cons of working her way through college.

https://youtu.be/poeBLc69YX4

Employment Resources

We’ve identified some categories of work that are typically available to college students, but what about the actual process of finding a suitable job? Students have a number of employment resources available to them on campus, online, and in the community:

Career centers: Most colleges have a career center where students can learn about job opportunities both on and off campus and also during the summer. Career center also have staff who can help students practice the interview process and write effective résumés and cover letters.

Career fairs: Many colleges organize on-campus career fairs (like the one shown in the photo, below). Local—and, in some cases, national—companies are invited to set up booths and share information with students about potential job and career opportunities.

Online job search: Web sites such as Careerbuilder, Snagajob, and even Craigslist post job listings for positions ranging from seasonal retail work to freelance writing opportunities. Students should look for listings that include company and contact information, so they can confirm that the leads are legitimate and reputable.

Community businesses and places of worship: Students may be surprised by the job opportunities they can find right in their own backyard. Don’t overlook community bulletin boards in places like neighborhood coffee shops and grocery stores—someone always seems to need a dog walker, house sitter, or nanny. Churches, temples, and mosques are additional places that often have notice boards with “Help Wanted” listings.

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49

Saving

Do not save what is left after spending, but spend what is left after saving. —Warren Buffet, investor and philanthropist

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Track your personal spending habits

Identify strategies for cost cutting in categories where you currently spend the most

Explore savings opportunities for college students

Tracking Personal Spending Habits

Lots of students work hard and manage to cover the cost of attending college, but plenty find that they don’t have a lot left over for other important things, like housing and food. The idea of actually saving money—for things like clothes, entertainment, or other “extras”—may seem completely out of reach. In this section we challenge you to take a chance and try. You may be surprised to find that you can change your spending habits, gain better control over your finances, and wind up with money in the bank. Below are some common hazards you can avoid and tips to get you started:

New spending responsibilities: If you’re starting college right out of high school, this may be the first time you’ve had your own checking account or received regular income from a job. It may be tempting to spend what’s left over after you pay for big items like tuition and books, forgetting that you still have other expenses. Even if you don’t spend a lot of money on extras, you may not be aware of strategies for saving money, such keeping an eye out for coupons and sales.

Using credit cards: Young college students are often targeted by credit card companies because they have comparatively few financial responsibilities and generally have clean credit records. Owning and using a credit card can be an effective way to build a credit history, and it can also be useful in an emergency, but credit cards do carry significant risk: If you don’t pay them off in full every month, they accrue interest—sometimes at a very high rate—and the total amount you owe can become an enormous financial burden.

Neglecting to pursue scholarships: Many college students are either unaware of scholarships they qualify for or they just don’t follow through and apply. Take advantage of the financial aid office at your college. Ask questions and get help finding out what’s available to you. You may be passing up an opportunity to get “free money” for tuition, room and board, and books.

Recreational activities: Unlike high school students, college students don’t generally have classes all day, so they may find themselves with hours of free time. To fill that time, they may want to go to places like restaurants, movies, and shopping centers. These activities add up fast and cost more money than eating on campus with a room-and-board plan or cooking meals and socializing at home.[1]

Most of these points have budgeting skills in common. Budgeting involves knowing how much money you have and where it’s going. The following activity will help you figure that out.

Activity: Personal Spending Habits, Part 1

Objective

Track your personal spending habits

Directions

Monitor what you spend money on for a week.

Use the template, below, to record your findings.

Weekly Spending Tracker

Total Income:

Day | Expenses

Monday

College-Related Expenses (tuition, books, etc.):

Rent/Board:

Food:

Transportation:

Leisure:

Misc.:

Tuesday

College-Related Expenses (tuition, books, etc.):

Rent/Board:

Food:

Transportation:

Leisure:

Misc.:

Wednesday

College-Related Expenses (tuition, books, etc.):

Rent/Board:

Food:

Transportation:

Leisure:

Misc.:

Thursday

College-Related Expenses (tuition, books, etc.):

Rent/Board:

Food:

Transportation:

Leisure:

Misc.:

Friday

College-Related Expenses (tuition, books, etc.):

Rent/Board:

Food:

Transportation:

Leisure:

Misc.:

Saturday

College-Related Expenses (tuition, books, etc.):

Rent/Board:

Food:

Transportation:

Leisure:

Misc.:

Sunday

College-Related Expenses (tuition, books, etc.):

Rent/Board:

Food:

Transportation:

Leisure:

Misc.:

At the end of the week and after reviewing your spending habits, did anything surprise you?—such as, “Who knew that I was spending so much on pizza and parking?”

Saving Strategies

Whether you are starting college as a single eighteen-year-old or you are older, working, and raising a family, there’s a set of basic financial strategies that can help you lower your expenses and save money while you’re in school. Analyzing your spending habits (as you just did) is the first step. Next, you can try the following:

Create a detailed budget: Budgets will enable you to treat yourself while avoiding overspending. For example, you might allot $50 a month for going out with friends. If you’ve already spent $50, you should find alternative recreational activities for the rest of the month so you don’t have to borrow money that you set aside for other expenses.

Cut down on meal costs: Looking for deals and using coupons at grocery stores will save more money than eating out. Students living in dorms may not have a lot of space and supplies for cooking, but they may still have room for a refrigerator and coffeemaker to avoid overspending on snacks and trips to Starbuck’s.

Save on transportation: Cut down on the cost of gas (or get rid of your car altogether) by walking to class, riding a bike, or using public transportation. Check to see whether your college offers free or reduced-price student bus/train passes.

Look for discounts and used items: As long as a textbook isn’t outdated, you can often purchase used or discounted copies online or from other students. Need to furnish a dorm room or off-campus apartment? You’ll save a lot money by borrowing household goods from friends and family or by purchasing them from secondhand stores.

Apply for scholarships and minimize loans: To repeat, scholarships don’t have to be repaid, and they don’t rack up interest. Do your best to apply for everything and anything that you qualify for, scholarships-wise. Winning a scholarship can have a big impact on your budget and financial health.

Given the money-saving strategies just described, let’s return to the personal spending you tracked earlier and see where you might be able to save.

Activity: Personal Spending Habits, Part 2

Objectives

Track your personal spending habits

Define strategies for cost-cutting in categories where you currently spend the most

Explore savings opportunities for college students

Directions

Carefully analyze the personal spending you monitored for a week during Part I of the activity.

Identify the three spending categories in which you spent the most money.

In which two of those categories could you cut costs? For example, perhaps you spent the most money on rent, food, and leisure. Rent is typically a fixed amount, but you may be able to brainstorm ways to save on food.

Identify three strategies you will implement this month to save money.

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting your work.

Reaume, Amanda. "6 Common Money Mistakes College Freshmen Make." Money: College Planner. 6 Sept 2015. Web. 2 Feb 2016.

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50

Budgeting

A budget is telling your money where to go instead of wondering where it went. —Dave Ramsey, financial author

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define budget strategies

Explore the pros and cons of budgeting

Create a personal budget

Without a personal budget, most people have a hard time gauging how much money they spend and where their money goes. If you have ever gone to an ATM to withdraw money and been surprised to discover how little you had left in your account, this section is for you. It’s also for anyone who wants to learn how to manage their money better and smarter—which is an invaluable skill to have during the penny-pinching years of college but also later on in life.

Budgeting Strategies

Even if you’re very conscientious about paying your bills on time and generally have frugal spending habits, creating and following a budget can put so much further ahead. In essence, a budget is a plan for how you want to spend money. It details how much money comes in each month and how much you’ve allocated for spending on each thing. The virtue of a budget is that it puts you in control of financial decisions—so you can avoid surprises at the ATM machine or at the end of the month. Let’s look at some strategies for creating a budget:

Be realistic: People are often intimidated by budgets because they’re afraid the plans will be too strict or force them to cut back too much. Though a budget may reveal that you indeed spend a lot of money on clothes, that’s okay—it may just also need to show that you spend very little on restaurants and eating out to make up for it. Again, it’s about making choices and being realistic.

Choose a time line: Creating a budget for a fixed period of time will help you monitor whether you’re meeting your financial goals. The time line you choose is up to you and your goals. For example, you might create a monthly budget to monitor how you spend your paycheck every month.

Add financial padding: Even if you feel like your list of financial obligations is already long, try to set aside a certain amount each month for a “rainy day” fund—to pay for unforeseen expenses and emergencies, like car repair, lost textbooks, etc.

Make adjustments as needed: While sticking to your budget is important, there’s nothing wrong with revisiting and adjusting your original targets. For example, if you find that you are actually spending $50 more per month on groceries than you intended (even after shopping for sale items), you may decide to save that money elsewhere in your budget next month—on entertainment, for example.

Even though you may not be able to afford “unlimited” trips to the movies each month, an effective budget can still account for leisure and entertainment activities.

Pros and Cons of Budgeting

While budgeting can be a useful financial tool, it may not be for everybody. Some people may feel more confident by balancing their checkbook to see how much they have at any given time. Still, many argue that budgeting helps people stay on track and avoid overspending on “wants” such as restaurant food, clothes, and entertainment, so they always have enough money for “needs,” such as rent/mortgage, utilities, and food. The following lists summarize the advantages and disadvantages of budgeting:

Pros

Provides a realistic view of personal finances: A personal budget provides an honest snapshot of how much money you make and how much you can spend. It can help you avoid deceptive financial thinking, such as believing that you’re “flush” right after pay day, when you really need to save that money for an upcoming bill.

Helps you avoid excess spending: Because a budget gives you insight into the total picture of your income and expenses, you can make realistic decisions about spending. As above, a budget can help you avoid a having faulty sense of your financial resources and remind you that even if you just got paid, most, if not all, of your check may need to go toward fixed expenses.

Assists in goal setting: Since you get to decide how to allocate your money, a budget can help you set goals. For example, if you create a yearly budget, you could plan and acccount for an upcoming family trip and start saving money for it in advance without worrying about having the money at the last minute.

Cons

Budgets take energy: Planning a budget takes dedication. Since most students lead busy lives and are balancing different demands like work, school, and time with family and friends, it can be easy to slip up. For example, if you have a stressful week at work or school, you might overspend while going out with friends and forget how much you budgeted for leisure activities.

Results take time: Since most budgets cover a time period of a month, year, or even longer, people may become frustrated waiting to see if their financial situation is better than it was before. Frustration can lead people to abandon their budget and go back to overspending or neglecting to save.

Budgets may be strict: Remember that one of the important strategies for creating a successful budget is earmarking money for “treats” and extras such as entertainment. However, in an effort to become more financially disciplined, some people make budgets that are too restrictive and unrealistic. This can backfire and lead to overspending in one area or abandoning the budget altogether.

Creating a Personal Budget

Even though you may be persuaded by the downsides of budgeting and think, “It’s not for me!” don’t give up until you’ve tried it. Tracking one’s income and spending is a good exercise for anyone, and if you follow the basic process, below, it’s easier than you think.

Stage 1: Determine Goals

The first strategy to create a successful budget is to determine w hy you are doing a budget. Setting goals will give you motivation to stay focused and on budget: something “real” to look forward to or achieve.

Try to set both short-term and long-term goals.

Short term goals should be things you want to do within 6 months to 1 year, such as  paying off a credit card or saving for your emergency fund

Long term goals should be things you want to do two or more years down the line, such as paying off college loans or buying a car

If you find the thought of making a budget too dreary to contemplate, start with your dreams, instead.  Sit down with a pen and paper and list out all your hopes for what you want to do in your life. Consider how the stress of financing these dreams will affect you in the short-term and long-term.  Be understanding of yourself, but also be realistic by asking, “Will you be able to do the things you listed at the rate you are going?”

Stage 2: Define Categories

Making categories helps make the budgeting process easier and quicker. Create a category for each of the areas you spend money or save money by grouping like items.  Tracking fewer categories makes it easier to budget overall.

Make a list of all the things you spend money on and save money for. Once you have your list try to group items together.

Potential categories might include:

Car – gasoline, oil changes, cleaning, upkeep

Entertainment – dates, parties, activities, Netflix or other streaming service subscriptions. Anything fun generally ends up in this area

Food – groceries, dining hall, coffee shops, restaurants, and bars

Household – food, cleaning supplies, personal care, over the counter medicine, and small appliances

Housing – rent or dorm costs

Gifts – gifts for birthdays, Christmas, showers, weddings, Father’s Day etc.

Clothing – clothing, shoes and accessories

Insurance – auto, rental, health, etc.

Savings – any money going to savings for specific reasons or a general emergency fund

Utilities – cell phone, Internet, cable, electric, gas, water, trash, etc.

Stage 3: Schedule Adjustments

Getting a budget up and running often works well for a month or two, and then encounters mysterious problems. Spending may balance out well initially, but then grow harder to predict or control.

A key secret: budgets need attention and adjustment every month.

You’ll have the same expenses every month, but they won’t always be for the same amounts. Therefore, your categories of spending will stay the same, but you’ll make adjustments to the amount  you budget every month. 

For example, if your significant other’s birthday is coming up, you’ll need to consider what you’re planning to do or buy for that event, and how that affects other spending for the month.

Each month, consider:

What events or activities do I have coming up?

Am I going to be driving more or less?

What holidays are coming up, and what do I need to do to prepare?

Is anyone going to be helping me pay for some categories this month?

If a category of your budget needs to increase its spending, then another area will need to  decrease its budget for that month.

Stage 4: Consider Expenses that Don’t Happen Each Month

Another challenging area for budgeting concerns things you know you’ll have to pay for, but infrequently or not on a set schedule. Such items include: 

taxes

insurance premiums

clothing

vacation

healthcare

You don’t want April to roll around and suddenly have to come up with a big amount of money to pay your taxes.

To prepare ahead of time, start setting money aside every month in a savings account. This will become a new category for your spending. You can divide things like insurance premiums into monthly chunks and sock that away ahead of time, in order to have enough for the lump payment when it comes due. Add an additional amount for less-predictable spending. That way, if you encounter a big sale at your favorite store, then you can stock up and not wreak havoc on your budget. It will take several months to get a cushion, so take that into account now.

It doesn’t matter what precise system you use. You just need to have a plan for these expenses.

Stage 5: Unexpected Expenses

The hardest part of budgeting for most people is unexpected expenses. These may be unexpected, and sometimes unpleasant, but you can still plan for them.

Types of unexpected expenses include

auto repairs

home repairs

veterinarian expenses

medical bills (like co-pays and prescriptions)

If you have a car, plan to have it repaired. The unknowns are when that will be and how much it will cost. To prepare, s et money aside ahead of time. Y ou may think, “Easier said than done!”  But putting aside as much as possible (and as realistic) will reduce your debt as well as lower your stress level!

Two ways you can set money aside:

Set a lump sum of money aside (the easiest way)

Set up categories for these expenses (like you did for your monthly expenses). This is more time-consuming but you can track exactly where your money is going.

Note – This is separate  from your emergency fund. Most financial experts recommend that you have 3-6 months’ worth of income in savings for emergencies.  Unexpected expenses are not emergencies. Emergency funds should be untouched and on-hand for dire situations like losing a long-term job or encountering a major medical issue. 

How much money should you set aside?

The best way to figure how much to budget for unexpected expenses is to list all the unplanned expenses you had last year, plus ones you can predict are coming soon. For example, you might predict that if you have a dog, he will have to visit the veterinarian at least 2 times a year for unexpected reasons.

Make a list of all unexpected expenses

Estimate how much money you should have set aside for the year

Take your total and divide by 12 and set this much aside each month

It might take you a while to get enough money set aside. Keep working at this, and don’t give up if you don’t always meet this target each month.

The Envelope Method

Still not convinced that making and following a budget is doable? The following video describes a budgeting technique that’s very easy and straightforward to follow: the “Envelope Budget.” Simply placing cash in labeled envelopes (one for each category or purpose) each month can be a very effective means of building healthy spending habits.

https://youtu.be/knfUHKzJ9m8

Activity: Creating a Personal Budget

Objective

Create a personal budget

Directions

Review the How to Budget Using the Envelope Method below, or find another “how to budget” video of your choosing.

Select one type of budgets suggested in the text or in the video.  Write down each step for the type of budget you selected.

Complete each step using your own financial information.

Do you think this process for creating a personal budget was helpful? Is there anything you’d change?

CC licensed content, Original

Budgeting. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

Revision and Adaptation of How to Budget Your Money. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Image of movie theater concessions. Authored by: Susan Sermoneta. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/htEDCJ. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

How to Budget Your Money. Provided by: Be Centsable. Located at: http://www.becentsable.net/2015/01/budget-money.html/. License: CC BY: Attribution

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How to Budget Using the Envelope Method. Authored by: LaTisha Styles. Located at: https://youtu.be/knfUHKzJ9m8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

51

Credit

Procrastination is like a credit card: it’s a lot of fun until you get the bill. — Christopher Parker, actor

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify credit card opportunities available to college students

Describe the risks and rewards of credit

Define credit history, and explain how to obtain your credit report

Identify resources for assistance with credit issues

Credit Card Opportunities

For many college students, who may not have a lot of money or even a job at all, owning a credit card may seem out of reach. Without money in an account and assurance that you can pay your monthly credit bill, the average student may not seem very “credit-worthy.” Still, it can be important to build a credit history for certain opportunities down the road (such as getting a loan to buy a house). You may be surprised to learn that there are plenty of companies that offer special options for younger customers, especially students. The following are some offers to look for:

Error forgiveness: Since you may be new to the responsibility of owning a credit card, it’s good to look for plans with error forgiveness. This may include a 0 percent annual percentage rate (APR) for the first six months of a contract or waive user penalties if you miss or have a late monthly payment for the first time.

No extra fees: Along with 0 percent APRs for the first six months, some credit cards don’t charge students for using their cards in other countries. This is a nice feature for students interested in studying or traveling abroad.

Rewards for good grades: Some companies offer credit card agreements that reward students for excelling academically. For example, you may receive cash back every year if you maintain a certain grade-point average.

Effective customer service: Credit card companies that have positive customer service reviews often provide extra support in answering questions from new customers. Some companies also have tools for their customers’ online accounts that help them pinpoint their spending and payment habits.[1]

Activity: Credit Cards for College Students

Objectives

Examine credit card opportunities available to college students

Explain the risks and rewards of credit

Directions

Research credit cards that reference college students.

Choose one credit card that you think offers good benefits for college students.

Identify three reasons this might be a good credit card for students.

What are some issues you think college students should still be aware of regarding this credit card or credit cards in general?

What is the APR for this credit card? Why would this information be important for cardholders to know about?

Follow your instructor’s guidelines for submitting this assignment.

Risks and Rewards of Credit

Credit cards can give students new opportunities, but owning them is also a big responsibility. Students should consider the advantages and disadvantages of credit before choosing the best plan.

Pros

Saving money: Credit cards can be connected to checking accounts so that companies know where their customers’ money is coming from and they have an account to charge interest rates to. The account can help students practice saving money rather than needing to having a lot of cash on hand. This can make it easier for students to make large payments for things like tuition and unexpected expenses like vehicle maintenance or medical bills.

Receiving benefits: In addition to cash back for good grades, credit card companies may offer other benefits such as store discounts, gas rewards, and points toward air travel.

Building credit: If you pay off your monthly credit card every month on time, you will start building credit and have a good credit score early on. Your credit score can be an important factor later on if you decide to open another account or take out a loan. Some employers may even want to see your credit history.

Cons

Overspending: If something is out of sight, it may be out of mind, and the same can be true of money. Sometimes people overspend with credit cards because it’s easy to think that you have more money than you really do.

Interest: Credit card companies with student deals still typically include some level of APR or interest rate. If you don’t pay off the entire balance every month, using a credit card can be expensive. Suppose you decide to use your credit card to pay for $1,000 in school supplies and books. Credit card 1 has an APR of 10 percent, and credit card 2 has an APR of 24 percent. If it takes you a year to pay off the $1,000, you’d actually pay a total of $1,055.04 with credit card 1 and $1,134.72 with Credit Card 2—that’s $55 or $135 on top of the original $1,000 you charged. This example highlights the importance of making sure you pay off the balance as soon as possible AND choose a credit card with a lower interest rate.

Debt: Unlike debit cards, credit cards allow users to borrow money that they can pay back at a later date. While this can be useful in emergency situations, you may end up charging more than you can afford to pay back right way, and you may find yourself saddled with debt. Carrying a lot of debt can damage your credit history and score.

Credit History and Credit Reports

You begin to establish a credit history as soon as you get your first credit card or get a loan. Your credit history includes information about the number of credit cards and loans you have and how conscientious you are about paying your bills. Three companies, TransUnion, Equifax, and Experian, collect this information and use it to create a credit report, which functions as a summary of your credit history. By law, you’re entitled to one free credit report each year from Annual Credit Report. Although you have to pay extra for your credit score to be included with your credit report, a lot of people use this as a quick reference to gauge how good or bad someone’s credit is. Different companies use slightly different ratings, but 300 or so is considered to be a low credit score, and 700–850 is considered to be high.

It’s a good idea to sign up for a free credit report from the Annual Credit Report, since other companies will charge to give you your credit history and score. The best thing is to keep track of your bills and pay them in a timely manner so you don’t have to worry about whether your credit is good or not. Potential landlords, banks, loan companies, car dealers, and even employers will often ask for your name and social security number so that they can obtain your credit information. Every business is different, but many use credit scores to evaluate prospective customers and decide how responsible or risky they might be.

The following video shows how your credit score is determined and some rules of the road for improving your current credit rating.

https://youtu.be/EV-fF_tQDXg

Resources for Credit Issues

Maintaining credit is a big responsibility, and sometimes it can be challenging. For example, you might have to borrow more student loans than you want because you don’t have time to work while attending school, or it might be difficult to find a decent-paying job as a student or recent graduate. These are just a couple of issues that could threaten your credit. Repairing bad credit can take a long time—up to seven years—so it’s important to take action as soon as you’re having trouble paying bills or overspending. Different resources and options are available to help you deal with credit issues, including the following:

Loan consolidation: Students may consider having multiple loans consolidated with the federal government so they have to make only one loan payment per month. While this may give you more time pay off student loan debt, it may not be the best option, since the one monthly payment can cost more and accrue a higher interest rate. Students should talk to loan company representatives and financial aid resources at their institution to discuss other payment options, such as income-based payments in which the amount you pay each month is based on your income level.

Credit counselors: Credit counselors are trained to help people develop personal budgets and to provide classes on savings and debt solutions. They may also offer debt management plans in which they work with your credit card and loan companies to arrange a deal and ask you for monthly deposits so that they can help you pay off your debts. If you are interested in a consultation from a credit counselor, you should ask family, friends, or your local government for references for reputable ones. You will also want to find counselors that do not charge customers too much for their services to avoid additional debt.

Debt settlement plans: Debt collection companies will offer services to their clients that involve talking to credit card and loan companies and coming up with a plan to pay a lump sum instead of the total debt owed. Similar to finding credit counselors, you should contact local government offices to find reputable debt collection companies so you can avoid overpayments and scams.

Bankruptcy: Bankruptcy is an official status that is obtained through court procedures, and it means that means you are unable to pay off your debts. People may file for Chapter 13 bankruptcy, which means they don’t lose any assets and have a payment plan of three–five years to pay off their debts, or Chapter 7 bankruptcy, which means they may have to surrender assets that can be used to pay off their debts. Bankruptcy damages your credit score, and the fees for filing paperwork and hiring an attorney can be costly, so it is important to consider other financial solutions first.

Credit counselors may be able to recommend budgeting and credit courses that will give you tips for managing your personal finances

Gardon, Michael. "Best Credit Cards for Students in 2016." The Simple Dollar. 10 Feb 2016. Web 12 Feb 2016.

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Credit. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Your Credit History. Provided by: Federal Trade Commission. Located at: https://www.consumer.gov/articles/1009-your-credit-history#!what-to-know. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Consolidating Student Loans. Provided by: US Department of Education. Located at: https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/repay-loans/consolidation. Project: Federal Student Aid. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

11

Wrap-up

52

Conclusion

Your Success Track

You’ve completed an important first step toward college success completing this course this course, by finishing the College Success module! May the new skills and strategies you’ve gained serve you well not only in college but at work and in any other settings in which college skills become life skills.

Application of Ideas

Consider the presentation, below, by Freeman Hrabowski, president of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). At the young age of twelve, he marched with Martin Luther King, and now, at UMBC, he works to create an environment that helps underrepresented students—specifically African American, Latino, and low-income learners—get degrees in math and science. In the video he shares the four pillars of UMBC’s approach. It’s an inspiring talk for any college student, no matter what your major may be. You can download a copy of the transcript here.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9EglK8Mk18o

Symbols of Success

As you move more deeply into student life, consider selecting a symbol of your commitment to success. Consider your own personal definition of  “success.” What would a physical representation of that success look like? Many people consider graduation caps or diplomas to be symbols of college success.  If those are meaningful to you, consider choosing one. Alternatively, yours can become more personal—an item that speaks to you as a sign of what you’re working toward and how you’ll know you’ve “made it.”

Some ideas from previous students include:

a stethoscope, for an aspiring medical student

a set of professional salon scissors, for an aspiring beautician

an office door nameplate, for an aspiring law student

Once you find a meaningful symbol—perhaps an object or an image or even an idea—keep it in a place where you can easily access it. In moments when you need a boost, you can remind yourself that college success begins and ends with your commitment to learning well.

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Conclusion. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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