CHAPTER I

THE GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND

erala has been through the ages an integral part of the Indian sub- K continent. Its history is part of the general history of India and its culture is one of the major streams that have enriched the composite culture of the country. At the same time Kerala has had the distinction of being an independent geographical and political entity from very early days. Its unique geographical position and peculiar physical features have invested Kerala with a distinct individuality. The land of Kerala comprises the narrow coastal strip bounded by the Western Ghats on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west in the southern part of the Indian Peninsula. Paradoxical as it might seem, this geographical position has helped to ensure, to some extent, its political and cultural isolation from the rest of the country and also facilitated its extensive and active contacts with the countries of the outside world. A study of the geographical factor in relation to Kerala history assumes special significance in this context.

Natural Divisons

Kerala State lies between 8° 18' and 12° 48' North latitude and between 74° 52' and 77° 24' East longitude. It has a total area of 15,002 sq. miles (38,855 sq.km.) and a coast line which is nearly 360 miles long. The territory of the state may be broadly divided into three natural divisions, viz., the highland, the midland and the lowland.1 The Western Ghats which range along the eastern border constitute the highland. It is covered by thick forests in its upper ranges while in the lower ranges the forests are interspersed with plantations. The lowland stretches along the coastal plain on the western side of the State. The soil in this region is sandy. The coconut tree (Kalpavriksha) grows luxuriantly in this area and dominates the landscape. Paddy is also extensively cultivated here. Sand-witched between the lowland and the highland is the midland. In this region, where the soil is laterite may be seen the valleys broken intermittently by isolated hills and also the plains leading to the forest-clad uplands. The region is rich in agricultural produce, paddy, tapioca, spices and cashew being the most important crops. On the higher elevations are extensive tea and cardamon plantations while pepper, rubber, ginger and turmeric flourish in the lower elevations.

1. The people of Ancient Kerala also divided the land on the basis of soil formations and regions. The forest regions were called Kurinji and Mullai, the uncultivable barren and rocky regions Pala or Palm, the cultivated area Marutham and the coastal tract Neytal lands.

Geographical Position

The geographical position of Kerala has its own uniqueness and its landscape its own beauty. In the poetic language of Mahakavi Vallathol, Mother Kerala "sleeps with her head on the lap of the Sahyadri clad in green" and "her feet pillowed on the crystal ocean sand, Kumari at one end and the Lord of Gokarna on the other." This geographical position of Kerala as the narrow strip of land hemmed in between the Western Ghats on the one side and the Arabian Sea on the other has considerably inlfuenced the course of its history. The State has from the dawn of history enjoyed a kind of insularity which has given it welcome immunity from the political convulsions which shook Northern India. Kerala seldom felt the impact of the many foreign invasions that "took place in the northern part of India from across the border. It took longer time for Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism from the north to penetrate into Kerala than into the other parts of Peninsular India. Kerala was also able to evolve its own way of life and social institutions unhampered by excessive interference from outside. This factor has helped the growth of peculiar social institutions like the Marumakkathayam or the matrilineal system of inheritance, polyandry etc., in Kerala. Even Brahmins and Muslims who as a rule follow everywhere the Makkathayam or patrilineal system of inheritance have Marumakkathayis among them in Kerala, viz., the Namboothiris of Payyannur Gramam and the Mappilas of North Malabar. Kerala could also evolve its own distinctive styles of art and architecture which are in many respects different from those in other parts of India. Such arts as Kathakali, Chakiar Kuthu, Ottam Tullal and Mohini Attam developed in Kerala in an atmosphere of splendid isolation.

The isolation of Kerala from the rest of the country has, however, had its limitations. The geographical barrier did not stand in the way of the great Advaita philosopher Sankaracharya (788-820 A.D.) undertaking his triumphant itinerary in North India for the propagation of the Vedanta philosophy even in such a remote age as the 9th century A.D. The great pilgrim centres situated on either side of the Ghats have been visited by devotees in their thousands even from time immemorial, unmindful of the hazards of geography. Kerala has also allways come within the scheme of conquests of the various powers that held sway in the neighbouring Tamil and Kannada areas. The Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Pandyas and the Cholas invaded Kerala several times in the ancient period while in the later period the rulers of Vijayanagar and Mysore carried out aggressive raids into its territory. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara (1299-1314), the Venad king, carried his victorious arms up to Kanchipuram and crowned himself as the Emperor of South India. The Bednore or Ikkeri Nayaks of South Canara exercised their sway over the Hosdurg-Kasaragod area of North Kerala for some time in the 17th and 18th centuries. The historic forts at Hosdurg, Bekal, Kalnad and Kumbla stand even today as memorials to their rule.

The evolution of the language and culture of Kerala has also been

influenced by contacts with the Tamil and Kannada regions. The southern

dialect of Malayalam shows traces of Tamil influence while the northern dialect bears evidence of Kannada influence. The customs and manners of the people in the extreme south, and north of the State show traces of influence from the adjoining Tamil and Kannada districts respectively. The influence of the Pallava, Chalukya and Vijayanagar styles may be seen in the temple architecture and sculpture of Kerala. The Tamil influence is perceptible in the High Ranges and some of the adjoining areas in Idukki district. Several temples dedicated to Madurai Minakshi may be seen here. The Minachil taluk has itself derived its name from Goddess Minakshi, popularly called Minachi in Tamil Nadu. In fact, Kerala history embraces within its scope a study of the relations of Kerala with such inter-State border districts as Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Coimbatore, Coorg, Mysore and South Canara in their proper historical perspective.

Mountains and Hills

The mountains and hills of Kerala have played their part :in its history. The Western Ghats have formed almost an unbroken wall guarding the eastern frontier and helped the people of Kerala to lead a sheltered -life of their own through the centuries. The Ghats range from 3,000 ft to more than 8,000 ft. above the sea level. The Anamudi peak in the High Ranges of Idukki district rises to a height of 8,841 ft and represents the highest point in India south of the Himalayas. The Agastyakutam, the southernmost peak in the Ghats, is 6,132 ft. above sea level and figures in the popular tradition connected with Agastyamuni. Apart from the many hills and peaks which form part of the regular Ghats there are several hills which lay dotted here and there over the plain country. Some of the hills of Kerala are important from the political and cultural points of view. Ezhimala or Mount Eli, the conspicuous isolated hill jutting into the sea on the Cannanore coast in North Kerala, was in the early centuries of the Christian era the seat of a flourishing kingdom. It has served as a well-known landmark for mariners from very early times. The Puralimala in Tellicherry taluk played a crucial role in the Pazhassi revolt of the British period and it has a place of importance in Kerala history almost akin to that of the Aravali hills in the annals of Rajasthan.

Some of the most important pilgrim centres of Kerala are located either on the top of the hills or in their valleys. The famous Tirunelli temple in North Wynad taluk lies in the valley of the Brahmagiri peak (5,276 ft). The celebrated Sastha shrine situated on the top of the Sabarimala (3,790 ft) in Peermede taluk is perhaps the most important centre of Hindu pilgrimage in Kerala. The Catholic church (St.Thomas Church) located on the top of the Malayattur hill (1,500 ft.) in the Alwaye taluk is one of the major centres of Christian pilgrimage in the State. The hills and mountains have thus come to have a religious halo in popular imagination. They have also been of great value in safeguarding the territorial integrity and political freedom of the land. The Western Ghats have prevented large-scale incursions into Kerala by aggressive powers from beyond and have thus acted as a natural wall of

protection. The Portuguese who landed on the Kerala coast were cut off by this mountain barrier from all contact with the interior of Peninsular India and prevented from building up a permanent Indian empire. It may be, noted that the English who landed on the eastern coast fared better in comparison with the Portuguese.

Mention may also be made in this connection of some of the important gaps or passes in the Western Ghats which have facilitated inter-State contacts. The major gap is the Palghat gap which is about 20 miles broad. “Here, by whatever great natural agency the break occurred, the mountains appear thrown back and heaped up, as if some overwhelming deluge had burst through, sweeping them to left and right. On either hand tower the giant Nilgiris and Anamalas, over-topping the chain of ghats by several, thousand feet, while through the gap the south-west winds bring pleasant moist air and grateful showers to the thirsty plains of Coimbatore, and roads, and railway link the Carnatic to Kerala. Through this the thousand streams of the higher mountains find their way to the sea and the produce of the eastern and western provinces is exchanged. The unique character—as a point of physical geography—of this gap in an otherwise unbroken wall of high mountains, six hundred miles long, is only equalled by its great economic value to the countries lying on either hand of it.”1

The Palghat gap has moulded the climate of the States of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It is because of this gap that the plains of Kerala get the benefit of the south-west monsoon and Central Kerala that of the north-east monsoon. The agricultural prosperity of Palghat as the rice-bowl of Kerala is in large measure due to the abundance of rainfall during the latter monsoon. In ancient days the Palghat gap must have served as a highway of commerce. This is testified to by the discovery of Roman coins from places in its vicinity and in the neighbouring Coimbatore region. It was because of the Palghat gap that Chola power could expand into Kerala and Chera power into the Kongu country at an early period of Kerala history. In the eighteenth century the Mysore rulers, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan, carried out their raids into Kerala through the Palghat gap. The gap has facilitated the immigration of diverse social groups into Kerala from beyond her borders. Apart from a small colony of Jains, there are groups of Tamil Brahmins, Chettis and Ravuthans who are engaged in trade and commerce in the Palghat area. They have influenced the life and culture of the Palghat district considerably. The customs and manners of the people of Palghat represent a fusion of Tamil and Kerala elements. The festivals and folk arts of Palghat like Rathotsavam, Pavakuthu, Kummatti and Kongan padai owe their origin to the influx of non-Kerala communities into the area.

In addition to the Palghat gap, there are also others like the Perambadi Ghat which gives access to Coorg and the Periya and Tamarasseri Ghats which provide access from Wynad to Mysore. These gaps have promoted contacts

1. William Logan, Malabar Manual, p. 3.

between Kerala and Mysore and have also served as routes of invasions. In the Travancore area the most important of the passes are the Bodinayakannur pass which connects Bodinayakunnur in Madurai district with the High Ranges in Idukki district, the Kambam pass through which was transacted much of the trade to and from Thodupuzha in ancient days and the Aryankavu pass which gives easy access by road to the adjoining district of Tirunelveli. Another important pass in the Ghats is the Aramboli (Aruvaimozhi) pass through which passes the trunk road from Tirunelveli to Trivandrum. It was through this pass that the Tamil powers often invaded South Travancore in the early period. The Aramboli pass, though now situated outside Kerala, has thus played a crucial role in the military history of South Kerala.

Sea

The sea has been a permanent and decisive factor in the history of Kerala. It has invested the State with a maritime tradition of its own. The Kerala coast has attracted foreign traders from Europe and Asia from very early days. In view of its extensive sea-coast Kerala has been served by a number of sea ports the relative importance of which has fluctuated from age to age. The most important sea ports of ancient Kerala through which commercial and cultural contacts were kept up with foreign countries were Muziris, Tyndis, Barace and Nelcynda. Such ports as Quilon (Kollam), Calicut (Kozhikode) and Cochin (Kochi) came into prominence in later periods of Kerala history. It was the extensive sea-coast washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea that exposed Kerala to the onslaughts of the maritime powers of Europe like the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the English ever since the landing of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498. The remnants of the European forts which may be seen at such places as Anjengo (Anchutengu), Tankasseri, Pallipuram, Tellicherry (Talasseri) and Cannanore (Kannur) on the Kerala coast proclaim even to-day the story of these foreign invasions. Nevertheless, in the ancient and early medieval periods, the contacts by sea between Kerala and the outside world had been mainly commercial and cultural in character. It is significant that such religions as Judaism, Christianity and Islam came to Kerala by sea. Thus the isolation to which Kerala was subjected by the Western Ghats lying on its eastern borders was more than compensated by the extensive foreign contacts facilitated by its long sea-coast on the west.

Rivers

Kerala is rich in water potential. There are 41 west-flowing rivers in the State in addition to three east-flowing ones which are the tributaries of the Kaveri. Only four of the rivers exceed 100 miles in length. They are the Bharatapuzha

(156 miles), the Periyar (142 miles), the Pamba (110 miles) and the Beypore or Chaliyar (105 miles). All other rivers are relatively small, the average length being about 40 miles. The rivers of Kerala have considerably influenced its historical and cultural development. They figure in one way or other in the history and cultural life of the people of Kerala. Several places of historical and cultural importance are located on the banks of the rivers. Tirunavai, the

place where the famous pan-Kerala assembly called Mamamkam was held under the presidency of the Zamorins of Calicut till the latter half of the 18th century, is situated on the banks of the Bharatapuzha. It was here that the mortal remains of national leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Lal Bahadur Sastri were immersed in recent times. Kaladi, the birth place of Sankaracharya, stands on the banks of the river Periyar . The Periyar looms large in the traditions and legends that have grown around the name of the great Advaita philosopher. Alwaye (Aluva) where the famous Sivaratri festival is held every year in the month of Kumbham (February-March), is another place of cultural importance on the banks of this river. On the river Pamba are located such places of religious importance as Aranmula, Chengannur, Maramon and Edathwa.

The rivers have also played their part in the political and military history of the State. The floods in the river Periyar in 1341 choked the mouth of the Cranganore (Kodungallur) harbour and rendered it useless for purposes of trade. Cochin rose into prominence simultaneously as a rival to Cranganore and before long it developed into the major harbour on the Kerala coast. The floods of 1341 are also believed to have brought into existence the island of Vaipin from the sea and according to one school of thought the Puduvaipu era commencing in 1341 commemorates this event. Further, it was the floods in the same river that prevented Tipu Sultan in 1789 from continuing his aggressive advance south of Alwaye and attacking Travancore.In modern times the rivers of Kerala have been successfully harnessed in the service of man. Several important irrigation projects lie the Malampuzha, Peechi and Periyar Valley have been executed in recent years and these project sites have almost become the centres of modern pilgrimage. The topography of the Western Ghats and the high intensity of rainfall also make Kerala’s rivers rich in hydroelectric potential. Hydro-electric projects like the Pallivasal, Sengulam, Peringalkuthu, Idukki and Sabarigiri deserve special mention in this connection and they have contributed not a little in quickening the pace of the indistrialisation of modern Kerala. It is worth mentioning that the most important industrial centres of the State like Punalur, Elur, Kallai and Baliapatam have risen on the banks of its rivers. The contribution of the river system to the development of Kerala is thus unique in every sense.

Backwaters

In addition to the rivers, Kerala has a continuous chain of lagoons and backwaters that run parallel to the sea-coast and receive water from the numerous streams and rivers of the land. They facilitate almost through communication between the northern and southern parts of Kerala. The most important lakes in North Kerala are Kumbla, Kalnad, Bekal, Kavvai etc. The place of pride among the Kerala backwaters goes to the ever blue Vembanad lake which stretches from Alleppey to Cochin and is 52 miles long. It covers an area of 79 sq. miles. The famous pilgrim centre of Vaikam is situated on the banks of this lake. The Vembanad lake has taken its name

from the ancient kingdom of Vempolinad which split itself into the principalities of Vadakkumkur and Tekkumkur sometime about 1200 A.D. The chief lakes in South Kerala are the Kayamkulam lake (19 miles) and the Ashtamudi lake (10 miles) each of which covers an area of 20 sq.miles. The Sasthamcotta lake in the Quilon district is the one and only major fresh- water lake in Kerala. It is surrounded by high hills on three sides and a one- mile long earthen bund on the fourth. The area of the lake is 1.44 sq. miles. On its banks is situated a famous Sastha temple fabled to have been founded by Sri Rama. There are also a few important places called Azhis on the Kerala coast where the backwaters establish permanent communication with the sea. The chief Azhis in the state are those of Azhikkal (Valapattanam), Chettuvai, Cranganore, Cochin, Nindakara etc.

Climate

The climate of Kerala has also exercised its influence on history. The diversity of the physical features of the State has resulted in ,a corresponding diversity of climate. The High Ranges have a cool and bracing climate throughout the year, while the plains are hot and humid. Though the mean temperature is only 90° F., it is oppressively hot in the plains in summer. The average level of annual rainfall in the State is quite high, being in the neighborhood of about 96". It is significant that the State gets rainfall both from the south-west and the north-east monsoons. The former starts towards the end of May or the beginning of June and fades out by about September while the latter commences in October, dry weather setting in by the end of December. The highest rainfall in the State occurs in the High Ranges of Idukki district where it amounts to over 200". It may be noted in this connection that it was the epoch-making discovery of the south-west monsoon by Hippalus, the Egyptian pilot, in 45 A.D. that facilitated direct sea-voyage from the Persian Gulf to Muziris. All military operations in Kerala have throughout been conditioned by climatic factors. The outbreak of the monsoon was often the signal for the cessation of hostilities and its end for their active renewal. The monsoon has also often caused floods in the rivers impeding the progress of military operations. Reference has already been made to the retreat of Tipu from Kerala following the floods in the river Periyar caused by the onset of the monsoon.

Fauna, Flora etc.

The variations in climate and seasons have had their impact on vegetation and the development of agriculture. Kerala is also rich in fauna, flora and mineral resources. Its forests abound in a variety of animals and birds. Among the exports from ancient Kerala to foreign countries the elephant, the peacock and the monkey seem to have had the place of honour. Ivory was also a valuable item of export. The aromatic plants and spices of Kerala attracted the attention of foreigners even from time immemorial. Such spices as pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and ginger were exported from ancient Kerala to the countries of Asia and Europe and they continue to earn valuable foreign

exchange even now. It was the demand for the pepper (‘black gold’) of Kerala that brought European powers like the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the English ‘to the Kerala coast in modern times and led to the establishment of European domination over the country.

The forests of Kerala abound in some of the rarest species of timber and they have been very much in demand in the foreign markets. The teak-wood from Kerala found its way to foreign countries even centuries before the dawn of the Christian era as is evidenced by the discovery of teak in the ruins of Ur. The magnificent teak of the Kerala forests appears to have been used for the manufacture of the ships that fought in the battle of Trafalgar and brought victory to Nelson. Kerala is also famous for its rich mineral resources. Kautilya’s Arthasastra (4th century B.C.) refers to the river Churni (Periyar) as one of the places in India where pearls could be found. The ancient Romans carried from Kerala such luxuries as pearls and diamonds in exchange for their gold. The Kerala coast is today known for its rich deposits of ilmenite and this has considerably added to the strategic importance of the State on the world map.

Parasurama Traditon

A critical examination of the Parasurama legend relating to the origin of Kerala would also help us to understand some of the basic facts relating to the geography of ancient Kerala. According to this legend the land of Kerala was a gift of the Arabian Sea to Parasurama, one of the ten Avatars or incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Legend has it that Parasurama threw his parasu or axe across the sea from Gokarnam to Kanyakumari (or from Kanyakumari to Gokarnam according to another version) and water receded up to the spot where it fell. The tract of territory so thrown up is said to have constituted the land of Kerala, otherwise called Bhargavakshetram or Parasuramakshetram. It should be stated that there is very little historical or factual basis for the Parasurama tradition, Parasurama himself being considered a mythological hero. The legend seems to have been concocted at a certain stage by interested parties with a view to popularising the theory of Brahmin predominance. There are references to the legend of Parasuram’s creation of Kerala from the sea in Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsa (Chapter IV Verse 53) and in the Tiruvalangadu plates of the reign of Rajendra Chola (1012-1044). It was handed down from generation to generation and finally enshrined in the Keralolpathi, the Malayalam work of doubtful historical value compiled some time in the 18th or 19th century.

Whatever be its historical authenticity, the Parasurama legend embodies some geographical and geological facts pertaining to ancient Kerala. Though geography is, as K.M. Panikkar has observed, “the most permanent and invariable factor of history”, it is an accepted fact that the geographical features of a country do not themselves remain stationary in all ages. The consensus of opinion among scholars is that a substantial portion of Kerala must have been under water in ancient days, the Arabian Sea itself having extended right up to the foot of the Western Ghats. The coastal belt of the Alleppey district is believed to have been submerged under water in the ancient past or

at least it might have constituted an extensive swamp interspersed with sand banks and mud banks here and there. The existence of marine fossils including coral reefs at Vazhapalli near Changanacherry is cited as positive evidence in support of the contention that the tract in question might have been at one time under the sea. The land might have been thrown up from the sea as a result of the operation of volcanic or seismological factors. Geologists point out that the numerous rivers which take their source from the Western Ghats might have also brought down in their course large quantities of silt and mud while ocean currents might have deposited immense quantities of sand on the shore. A vast stretch of land area might have thus come into existence by the steady accumulation of silt and sand. Perhaps, the Parasurama legend regarding the creation of Kerala from out of the sea highlights this geographical truth.

Origin of the Names ‘Kerala’ and ‘Malabar’

An examination of some of the theories regarding the origin of the names ‘Kerala’ and ‘Malabar’ is also relevant to our study of the geographical factor in relation to Kerala history. The coastal belt lying between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea in Peninsular India was designated ‘Kerala’ in Sanskrit literature even from very ancient times. The words Kerala and Chera have been used almost as synonyms by all early writers on Kerala. An attempt is made by some scholars to derive the name Kerala from the word Kera (coconut) which is one of the characteristic products of the West Coast. But this view is not shared by all writers. Dr. Gundert, the author of the monumental Malayalam Dictionary, observes that the word ‘Keram’ is ‘the Canarese pronunciation’ of the word ‘Cheram’ and he describes ‘Keralam’ as ‘Cheram’- the country between Gokarnam and Cumari. The word Charal in Tamil means the declivity of a hill or a mountain slope and according to some writers the word must have got itself corrupted in course of time into Cheral, giving its name to the Kerala or Chera country. This theory emphasises the mountainous character of Kerala as the basis of the origin of its name. However, the derivation of the name ‘Chera’ or ‘Kerala’ from Charal is a little far-fetched. In ancient works the land is invariably referred to as the Chera country and the ruler of the land as the Chera or Cheral. There is no mention at all of the word Charal There is also a view that the word Keralam (Cheralam) is made of the two words cher (sand) and alam (region) and that it literally means the slushy land.1 Though Cheralam is a compound of the words cher and alam, it may be pointed out that the name is capable of a different interpretation. Cher or Chernta means ‘added’ and hence Cheralam means the land which was added on (to the already existing mountainous or hilly country). The word Cheralam might have, in course of time, got itself Sanskritised as Keralam. The above derivation would make the land of Kerala a reclamation or addition to the land from the sea, lending support to the geological interpretation given to the Parasurama tradition.

l . Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7.

The land of Kerala is also alternatively known as ‘Malabar’. Even from the time of Cosmas Indicopleustus (6th century A.D.) the Kerala coast is referred to as Male by Arab navigators. Albiruni (973-1048 AD.) is perhaps the first Arab writer to call the country Malabar. The names Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar and Munibar are, however, indiscriminately used by Arab writers to describe the land. The name is reminiscent of the word “Malanadu” which literally means “the hill country”. According to Logan the name Malabar is of semi- foreign origin. It is suggested that Malabar is a compound of two syllables, viz., mala and bar, the former a Dravidian word meaning hill or mountain and the latter either the Persian word bar which means country or the Arabic word barr which means continent. But it may be pointed out that the term ‘Malabar’ need not necessarily be of semi-foreign origin. As the country was known as ‘Malanadu’ in medieval Tamil and early Malayalam, the name Malabar could well be a corruption of the alternative word ‘Malavaram’ which also means ‘the hilly country’. Whether the origin of the word is semi-foreign or fully indigenous, there is no doubt whatsoever that Malabar has taken its name form the hilly or mountainous character of the country.